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<Search><pages Count="182"><page Index="1"/><page Index="2"/><page Index="3"><![CDATA[11






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                                                 Dr. Saurabh Maheshwari]]></page><page Index="4"><![CDATA[Published by:
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                                             Published and Distributed by Orange House Pvt Ltd]]></page><page Index="5"><![CDATA[PREFACE









                 When I was a student, robots were something we saw only in science fiction films. Today, they are very much part of our
                 reality. We live in an era where robotics is not merely a buzzword but a driving force transforming how we live and work.
                 From hospital wards to living rooms, robots assist doctors in surgeries, deliver essential supplies, clean our floors, and
                 even keep us company. As of 2023, more than 4.3 million robots are at work in factories across the globe. The robotics
                 revolution is here, and it continues to grow at a remarkable pace.

                 This rapid transformation means education must evolve too. The next generation needs the knowledge and skills to work
                 alongside robots,  and even to design and build them. Robotics education is not just about learning to code or assemble
                 parts; it is about sparking creativity, innovation, and problem-solving. I have seen first-hand how a simple robotics project
                 can light up a student’s eyes with curiosity. Robots, once confined to stories of imagination, have now found their place in
                 classrooms and are positively influencing how children learn. With growing awareness and accessibility, robotics kits and
                 tools have become affordable for schools, making this the perfect time to integrate robotics into teaching and learning.

                 To the Educators : You are the mentors guiding young minds through this exciting landscape. Your role in this robotics
                 revolution is crucial, you are not only teaching technical skills but also inspiring students to think, create, and innovate.
                 This book has been designed with you in mind, offering a step-by-step journey through the world of robotics. Each
                 chapter builds upon the last, from understanding basic mechanical systems to exploring computing, control, and
                 real-world applications. You are encouraged to adapt the lessons, promote hands-on exploration, and share your
                 own insights. Robotics is a powerful interdisciplinary subject that blends physics, mathematics, computer science, and
                 creativity. By teaching robotics, you are preparing students with 21st-century skills for the challenges and opportunities
                 of the future, including jobs that do not yet exist. I hope this book helps you make robotics an exciting and meaningful
                 part of your curriculum.
                 To the Students : You are the innovators and change-makers of tomorrow. This book invites you into the fascinating
                 world of robotics, a world where machines move, think, and respond. As you read, you will discover how gears, circuits,
                 and code come together to create robots that solve real-world problems. Do not be afraid to experiment. Try out the
                 examples, build your own creations, and stay curious. If something feels challenging, remember that every great inventor
                 began with the basics and succeeded through perseverance. By learning robotics, you are not just using technology,
                 you are learning to shape it for the better. One day, you may design a robot that improves countless lives. Keep that
                 excitement alive as you explore these pages, the future of robotics depends on minds like yours.

                 In writing this book, my goal was to make robotics learning practical, engaging, and accessible for both students and
                 educators. You will find a balance of theory, examples, and real-world insights throughout. I encourage you to discuss,
                 experiment, and enjoy the process — robotics is best learned through doing. Embrace the challenges, celebrate the
                 breakthroughs, and do not be discouraged by setbacks; even the best robots need many trials to perform perfectly.
                 I am deeply grateful to all teachers who dedicate themselves to nurturing young learners, and to the students whose
                 enthusiasm continues to inspire. It is my sincere hope that this book sparks a lifelong passion for innovation, creativity,
                 and technology. Together as teachers and students, we can turn today’s imagination into tomorrow’s reality.

                                                                                                  Dr. Saurabh Maheshwari
                                                                                                           MTech MBA PhD
                                                       Dx Consultant | International Trainer | TEDx Speaker | Startup Mentor]]></page><page Index="6"><![CDATA[INSIDE THE SERIES









                                                        Learning Resources


                                                                                             Learning Objectives
                                                                              LEARNING       Provides an overview of the
                                                                              OBJECTIVES     unit’s content.





                       Actual Funny Incident
                      Shares real-life amusing
                     incidents involving robots
                           that teach lessons.


                                                                                             Brainy Fact

                                                                                             Presents interesting facts
                                                                                             related to the topic.




                             Video Session

                   Offers video links to enhance
                       concept understanding.





                                                                                             Research Activity

                                                                                             Includes tasks that connect
                                                                                             theory with real-world
                                                                                             practice.


                                    Reboot

                    Asks questions to check the
                    student’s understanding of
                                    the topic.


                                                                                             Game

                                                                                             Provides an engaging activity
                                                                                             to make learning fun.]]></page><page Index="7"><![CDATA[At a Glance

                     Gives a brief summary of
                                the chapter.



                                                       Assessment Resources



                                                                                            Deep Thinking

                                                                                            Poses a thoughtful question
                                                                                            or scenario for reflection.



                                 Exercise

                     Includes questions to test
                    understanding and recall.



                                                                                           Lab Activity

                                                                                           Presents practical tasks to
                                                                                           build hands-on skills.





                                   Project

                      Encourages students to
                      apply learning through
                              creative work.




                                                                                           Viva Voce
                                                                                           Shares objective questions to
                                                                                           assess conceptual clarity.



                              Assignment

                        Gives extended tasks
                       to reinforce classroom
                                   learning.




                                                                                            Glossary
                                                                                            Lists and define important
                                                                                            robotics terms.]]></page><page Index="8"><![CDATA[Incorporates NEP 2020



                       The series has been designed with a new dimension of Joyful Learning and completely
                     mapped with National Education Policy, 2020, focusing on essential skills, and capacities.






                                                                Coding &                    Experiential
                                 Interdisciplinary
                                                           Computational Thinking            Learning
                               Connects knowledge           Enables to help solve           Encourages
                               across the curriculum        problems and makes            ‘learning by doing’
                                   for holistic                thinking more              through hands-on
                                  development                    engaging                     activities





                  Problem Solving &            Communication                Collaboration &               Creativity &
                  Logical Reasoning                                           Teamwork                   Innovativeness

                                                  Emphasis                     Enhances                     Enhances
                 Strengthens logical           on soft skills and           interpersonal and             imagination to
                  decision-making                the power of                intra-personal               generate new
                   and innovation                 language                       skills                      ideas





                                                              Ethical & Moral              Environmental
                                 Digital Literacy
                                                                Reasoning                   Awareness
                               Aims at understanding             Inclines              Focuses on understanding
                               and developing skills        towards empowering            the importance of
                                   in a specific               moral values                protecting the
                                     subject                    in learners                 environment





                                                 Digital Resources








                  Smart e-Book/            Practice              Answer               Student              Software
                     Flipbook            Worksheets               Key               Worksheet           Download Link















                                  Visit www.orangeeducation.in or Scan QR to register on our Web Support.]]></page><page Index="9"><![CDATA[SYLLABUS CLASS XI

               ROBOTICS (884)






               There will be two papers in the subject:
               Paper I:  Theory…………..   3 hours… 70 marks
               Paper II: Practical……….   3 hours… 15 marks
                      Project Work…          … 10 marks
                     Practical File…..       ..… 5 marks


                                                    PAPER I: THEORY—70 MARKS

                      S. NO.        UNIT                                                  TOTAL WEIGHTAGE

                      1.            Introduction to Robotics                              10 Marks
                      2.            Mechanical System                                     15 Marks

                      3.            Computing Systems                                     20 Marks

                      4.            Electrical and Control Systems                        15 Marks

                      5.            Applications of Robotic Systems                       10 Marks

                      TOTAL                                                               70 Marks]]></page><page Index="10"><![CDATA[PAPER I: THEORY—70 MARKS
              1.  Introduction to Robotics
                  (i)  What is a robot?
                        Understanding what robots are and how they operate autonomously or semi-autonomously using sensors and AI.

                  (ii)  New Age Robotics Systems.
                        Advanced AI and machine learning applications in smart manufacturing, healthcare, and autonomous vehicles.
                  (iii)  Components of Robots.
                        System Visualization, Design, and Creation, Utilizing CAD modeling and precision manufacturing to create sensors,
                      actuators, and control units.
                  (iv)  Relating Physics & Mathematics to Robotics.
                        Applying  principles  for  motion,  forces, control, algorithms  for  programming,  and problem-solving. Matrix
                      Operations: Essential for transformations, handling coordinate systems, and calculating rotations and translations
                      in robotic arms. Vectors and Vector Spaces: Used for calculating direction, force, and position in space, especially
                      in multi-dimensional tasks.
                  (v)  Project Management.
                        Planning, execution, and monitoring, Ensuring robotic projects meet goals, are completed on time, within budget,
                      and adhere to quality standards.

              2.  Mechanical System
                  (i)  Frames and Reference Frames.
                        Frames: In robotics and mechanical systems, representation of a coordinate system defining the position and
                      orientation of objects within that system, provide a reference for defining the movement and positioning of robotic
                      components.
                        Reference Frames: Understanding moving and fixed frames, crucial for robot movement and positioning.
                        Fixed Frames: These are stationary frames that serve as a stable reference point. For instance, in a robotic arm,
                      the base frame of the robot is often fixed to the ground, providing a constant reference for the entire system.

                        Moving Frames: These frames move along with the object they are attached to, allowing for dynamic reference
                      points. For example, each segment of a robotic arm may have its own moving frame, which changes position as
                      the arm moves.
                  (ii)  Degrees of Freedom.
                        3D Modelling, designing structures by manipulating shapes in a virtual space, with the option to move, scale, and
                      rotate them along all three axes. TinkerCAD as a beginner-friendly, browser-based tool for creating 3D models.
                      Design of different structures using Tinker Cad.
                  (iii)  Planar Mechanisms.
                        Planar mechanisms operate in a two-dimensional plane, typically with motion restricted to a single plane with real
                      life examples.
                  (iv)  Spatial Mechanism.
                        Three-dimensional mechanisms, operate in three-dimensional space and allow motion in multiple directions with
                      real life examples(Qualitative with pictures).
                  (v)  Robot Kinematics.
                        Planar open chain mechanism, Forward kinematics of different planar configurations, such as 2R and RP, allows
                      to compute the position based on the joint variables or displacements.
                  (vi)  Different Components of Robot.
                        Examining  frames, materials  (MDF,acrylic, aluminum,  steel),  and  wheel types  (standard,  castor,  Mecanum,
                      Omni).]]></page><page Index="11"><![CDATA[(vii)  Coordinate Systems.
                         Cartesian, polar, and cylindrical coordinates used for robot positioning and movement.
                  (viii) Specification of Robots.
                         Resolution: Reference to the smallest incremental movement that a robot can detect or achieve, robot’s control
                       system and sensors.
                         Current Trends: Higher Resolution Encoders particularly in applications requiring high precision, such as electronics
                       or biomedical manufacturing.
                       Sub-Micron Resolution: High-precision applications, robots, sub-micron levels and semiconductor manufacturing.
                         Integrated Vision Systems: Integrated vision systems that enhance resolution by allowing real-time adjustments
                       based on visual feedback.
                       Accuracy: Ability to position its end-effectors precisely at a desired location.
                         Current Trends: Enhanced Calibration Techniques- Achieve better absolute accuracy. Calibration accounts for all
                       joints and links, minimizing errors in each part of the robot arm.
                         Dynamic  Error Compensation:  Dynamically  adjust  for temperature  changes,  wear, and other  environmental
                       factors to maintain accuracy.
                       Feedback Mechanisms: Laser-based tracking and real-time correction.
                       Repeatability: Ability to return to a specific position under identical conditions repeatedly.
                         Current Trends: Sub-Millimeter Repeatability: Tasks requiring high consistency, such as spot welding in automotive
                       production.
                         Improved Mechanical Design: Improved repeatability, as the mechanical components and more reliable over
                       repeated cycles.
                         Adaptive  Control Systems:  Adaptive  control systems,  complex,  repetitive  motions,  such as pick-and-place
                       operations in logistics or packaging.
               3.  Computing Systems
                  (i)  Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT).
                         Application in robotics for decision-making.
                  (ii)  Microcontroller / SBC Architecture.
                         Understanding block diagrams and architecture.
                  (iii)  Programming Fundamentals.
                         Algorithms,  flowcharts,  pseudo  code,  microcontroller/SBC  programming,  basic  embedded  C  programming,
                       interrupts, and timers.
                  (iv)  Debugging and Testing.
                         Ensuring correct and efficient program execution.
               4.  Electrical and Control Systems
                  (i)  Motors and Sensors.
                         Types of motors (DC, Servo) description, characteristics, application, advantages and disadvantages. Sensors
                       (IR, ultrasonic, LIDAR, touch, gyroscopes, accelerometer) description, working principle, application, advantages
                       and disadvantages.
                  (ii)  Batteries.
                         Types of batteries commonly used in robotics (lithium-ion,lead-acid),characteristics, applications and drawbacks.
                  (iii)  Communication Protocol.
                         UART,  I2C, SPI, CAN. Comparison  and key  characteristics,  differences, uses, speed  and performance, error
                       detection and reliability.]]></page><page Index="12"><![CDATA[(iv)  Power Requirement.
                        Power requirements of different robotic components depending on type, size and functionality, such as motors,
                      sensors, actuators, and microcontrollers.
                  (v)  Control Systems.
                        Basics of control systems ensuring accurate, efficient, and safe robot performance.
              5.  Applications of Robotic Systems
                  (i)  Manipulators
                        Study  the  basic  mathematical  concepts  and  control strategies  used  in  analyzing  robotic  manipulator  arms,
                      emphasizing their practical use in automating industrial processes and assembly tasks.
                  (ii)  Mobile Robots
                        Examine the basic design principles and sensor integration techniques for autonomous mobile robots, emphasizing
                      their role in logistics, transportation, and search and rescue operations.
                  (iii)  Drones
                        Applying the principles of aerial robotics and drone technology, including sensor payloads, and regulations, with
                      applications in aerial photography, agriculture, and disaster response.


                                               PAPER II: PRACTICALS—30 MARKS

              The practical paper of three hours duration will be evaluated internally by the school. The paper shall consist of three
              problem statements from which a candidate has to attempt any one problem statement.
              The practical consists of two parts:

              1.  Planning/ Writing Session
              2.  Examination Session
              The total time to be spent on the Planning/Writing Session and the Examination session is three hours. A maximum of 90
              minutes is permitted for the Planning/Writing Session and 90 minutes for the Examination session. Candidates are to be
              permitted to proceed to the Examination Session only after the 90 minutes of the Planning / Writing Session are over.

              Planning/Writing Session
              The candidates will be required to prepare an algorithm and a handwritten program to solve the problem.

              Examination Session
              The program handed in at the end of the Planning/Writing session shall be returned to the candidates. The candidates will
              be required to do and execute the program, circuit on seen and unseen inputs individually on the computer, hardware
              and show execution to the examiner. A printout of the program listing, including output should be attached to the answer
              script containing the handwritten program and hardware results. This should be returned to the examiner. The program
              should be sufficiently documented so that the apparatus/components required, circuit diagram/block diagram, algorithm/
              flowchart, representation, development process, observations/output is clear from reading the program. Large differences
              between the planned program and the printout will result in loss of marks.
              Teachers should maintain a record of all the assignments done as part of the practical work throughout the year and give
              it due credit at the time of cumulative evaluation at the end of the year. Students are expected to do a minimum of twenty
              assignments for the year and ONE project based on the syllabus.
              LIST OF SUGGESTED ASSIGNMENTS/EXPERIMENTS:
              Some sample problems are given below as examples. The problems are of varying levels of difficulty:
              1.   Provide  physical  objects  and  demonstrate  how to  describe  their  positions  using  Cartesian,  polar,  and  cylindrical
                  coordinate systems.
              2.  Construct a simple robotic arm and analyze its degrees of freedom and range of motion.]]></page><page Index="13"><![CDATA[3.   Connect sensors such as ultrasonic, infrared, or camera sensors to a robot and perform tasks like obstacle avoidance
                  or object detection.
               4.   Use a microcontroller (e.g., Arduino) to program basic robot movements such as forward, backward, left, and right.
               5.  Use inverse kinematics to control the end-effector of a robotic arm to reach specific target positions.
               6.  Program a robot to detect obstacles using sensors and navigate around them autonomously.
               7.  Use Bluetooth or Wi-Fi modules to establish wireless communication between a robot and a remote-control device.
               8.  Use simulation software to model and simulate robotic systems performing various tasks.
               9.   Choose a robotics project (e.g., autonomous robot navigation, robotic arm manipulation) and work in teams to design,
                  build, and demonstrate their project.
               NOTE:  This list is indicative only. Teachers and students should use their imagination to create innovative and original
                     assignments.

                                                     EVALUATION OF ASSIGNMENTS
               Marks (out of 30) should be distributed as given below.

               Continuous Evaluation
               Candidates will be required to submit a work file containing the practical work related to assignments done during the year
               and ONE project.

                      Assignments done throughout the year                             10 marks
                      Project Work (based on any topic from the syllabus)              5 marks

               Proposed Guidelines for Marking
               The actual grading will be done by the teacher based on his/her judgment. One possible way: divide the outcome for each
               criterion into one of 3 groups: excellent, good, poor/unacceptable, then use numeric values for each grade and add to get
               the total.
               Evaluation will be done as follows:

               Assignments:                                                                                      10 Marks

                                                         Class design - Execution      Documentation Practical File
                        Criteria (Total 10 marks)
                                                               (4 marks)                       (6 marks)
                      Excellent                                    4                               6

                      Good                                         3                               4
                      Poor                                          1                              2

               Assignments:                                                                                      10 Marks

                            Criteria           Knowledge and        Functionality and          Presentation
                         (Total 5 marks)       Understanding          Performance               (1 marks)
                                                 (1 marks)             (3 marks)
                      Excellent                      1                     3                        1
                      Good                           1                     2                        1
                      Poor                           1                     1                        1

               Terminal Evaluation
                      Solution to Problem Statement on Hands-On/ Programming                 15 marks

               Marks should be given for choice of algorithm and implementation strategy, circuit making, documentation, correct output
               on known inputs mentioned in the question paper, correct output for unknown inputs available only to the examiner.]]></page><page Index="14"><![CDATA[CONTENTS









              1  Introduction to Robots: What Exactly Are They?                                                       13
                      But What Truly Defines a Robot?
                      Brief History and Evolution of Robotics
                      How Robots Operate: The Core Components
                      The Role of Sensors: Robot’s ‘Senses’
                      The Power of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Robotics
                      Autonomous vs. Semi-Autonomous Operation
                      Ethical Considerations and The Future of Robotics
                      New Age Robotics Systems: Advanced AI and Machine Learning Applications
                      Components of Robots: System Visualisation, Design, and Creation
                      Relating Physics & Mathematics to Robotics: The Scientific Foundations
                      Algorithms for Programming and Problem-Solving
                      Project Management in Robotics: Orchestrating Innovation
              2  Mechanical System                                                                                    53
                      Frames and Reference Frames: The Foundation of Robot Positioning
                      Degrees of Freedom: From Robotic Motion to 3D Design
                      Planar Mechanisms: Motion in Two-Dimensions
                      Spatial Mechanisms: Three-Dimensional Motion in Action
                      Robot Kinematics: The Geometry of Motion
                      Different Components of a Robot: Frames, Materials, and Wheel Types
                      Coordinate Systems: Mapping the Robot's World
                      Specification of Robots: Defining Performance Metrics
                      Case Study: A Surgical Assistant Robot for Minimally Invasive Surgery
              3  Computing System                                                                                     82
                      Boolean Operators: The Logic Behind Robot Decision-Making
                      Microcontroller/Single Board Computer Architecture: The Robot’s Brain Unveiled
                      Programming Fundamentals: Giving the Robot its Instructions
                      Debugging and Testing: Ensuring Correct and Efficient Program Execution
                  Project 1                                                                                          106
              4  Electrical and Control Systems                                                                      107
                      Actuators: The Muscles of Robots - Types of Motors
                      Sensors in Robotics: The Robot’s Perception
                      Communication Protocols in Robotics: The Language of Components
                      Power Requirements of Robotic Components: The Energy Demands
                      Control Systems in Robotics: Orchestrating Accurate, Efficient, and Safe Performance
                  Project 2                                                                                          142

              5  Applications of Robotic Systems                                                                     143
                      Manipulators: The Robotic Arms for Industrial Automation and Assembly
                      Mobile Robots: Navigating and Operating in Dynamic Environments
                      Drones: Aerial Robotics for a Sky-High Perspective
                  Project 3                                                                                          166
                  Project 4                                                                                          167
              Assignments                                                                                            168

              Viva Voce                                                                                              172

              Glossary                                                                                               174]]></page><page Index="15"><![CDATA[1











                                                                                     LEARNING OBJECTIVES
                                                                                     •  But What Truly Defines a Robot?
                                                                                     •  Brief History and Evolution of Robotics
                                                                                     •  How Robots Operate: The Core
                                                                                        Components
                                                                                     •  The Role of Sensors: Robot’s ‘Senses’
                                                                                     •  The Power of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in
                                                                                        Robotics
                                                                                     •  Autonomous vs. Semi-Autonomous
                                                                                        Operation
                                                                                     •  Ethical Considerations and The Future of
                                                                                        Robotics
                                                                                     •  New Age Robotics Systems: Advanced AI
                                                                                        and Machine Learning Applications
                                                                                     •  Components of Robots: System
                                                                                        Visualisation, Design, and Creation
                 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTS:                                             •  Relating Physics & Mathematics to
                                                                                        Robotics: The Scientific Foundations
                                                                                     •  Algorithms for Programming and
                                                                                        Problem-Solving
                 WHAT EXACTLY ARE THEY?                                              •  Project Management in Robotics:
                                                                                        Orchestrating Innovation




                 Welcome to the fascinating world of Robotics! From the dazzling imagination of science fiction movies to the practical
                 reality of automated factories, robots are steadily becoming an integral part of our everyday lives.









                              ROBOT                    COBOT                     MOBOT                 HOBOT
                          Industrial Robot         Collaborative Robot         Mobile Robot        Humanoid Robot

                 But What Truly Defines a Robot?

                 Is it just  a human-like  machine  with arms, legs, and blinking  lights? Not  necessarily!  A  robot  can take  many
                 forms—ranging from robotic arms assembling cars to tiny machines navigating inside the human body. At its core, a
                 robot is a programmable machine designed to carry out specific tasks, often with a degree of autonomy. Robots can
                 sense their environment, process information, and act accordingly. They come in all shapes and sizes, depending on
                 their  function—some  look  like  insects,  others  like  vacuum  cleaners, and some  even fly like  drones. Robotics  blends
                 mechanical engineering, electronics, computer science, and artificial intelligence to bring machines to life. As technology
                 continues to evolve, robots will play an even larger role in fields such as healthcare, space exploration, defence, and
                 everyday household tasks.
                 To understand a robot better, let’s look at its fundamental characteristics:
                 1.  Sensing: A robot must be able to perceive its surroundings. Just like humans use their five senses (sight, hearing,
                    touch, smell, taste), robots use special devices called sensors to gather information about their environment. This
                    information could be about distance, light, temperature, presence of objects, or even pressure.
                                                                                                                       13
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="16"><![CDATA[2.  Processing (Thinking): Once a robot senses information, it must interpret it and make decisions. This function is
                  performed by its ‘brain’, which is typically a microprocessor or a computer. This processing unit runs complex
                  software that enables the robot to understand the sensor data and determine the appropriate action.
              3.  Acting (Doing): After processing information and making a decision, the robot must perform a physical action. This
                  is done through actuators, which are mechanical components like motors, gears, or hydraulic systems that convert
                  electrical signals into physical movement. These actuators move the robot’s limbs, wheels, or other parts.
              4.  Programmability: A robot is not just a simple machine; it’s a programmable one. This means it can be given a set
                  of instructions, or a ‘program’, to follow. These programs dictate how the robot behaves, what tasks it performs, and
                  how it reacts to different situations. The flexibility of programming allows a single robot to perform various tasks if its
                  program is changed.

                                               Programmability
                            Modifying behaviour through programming











                                                                 Robot                         Sensing
                                                              Functionality                    Gathering environmental
                                   Acting                        Cycle                         data through sensors
                     Executing physical actions
                           through actuators









                                                                          Processing
                                                                          Interpreting data and making decisions

              Example: Consider a simple robotic arm used in a car manufacturing plant.
                  It might use a vision sensor (camera) to sense the exact position of a car door.
              u
                  Its control system (processor) then processes this visual data to calculate the precise movements needed.
              u
                  Finally, actuators (motors) in its arm move the door into position, and a welding tool (its end-effector) acts to weld
              u
                  it. All these steps are guided by a detailed program that defines the welding sequence.

                                                       AI Can Recognize Faces Sometimes Too Well

                                        Facial recognition AI is now so powerful it can unlock your smartphone or identify
                                        suspects in security cameras. However, it’s also controversial because of privacy
                        BRAINY
                         FACT        concerns. Governments and companies debate how much AI should be allowed to “see”
                                      and store about individuals. The technology is impressive—it can identify someone in a
                                      stadium of thousands within seconds—but it also sparks big ethical discussions about
                                                         freedom and surveillance in the age of AI.









              14
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="17"><![CDATA[Brief History and Evolution of Robotics
                                 First AMR
                           Autonomous Mobile Robot: can
                             imagine with fixed paths
                                                     First Commercial                              Amazon's first
                                                 Computer-Controlled Robot                           fully AMR
                                                                           Roomba's first AMR



                                 Shaley Stanford     Cincinnati Milacron T3
                      First AGV                                    First Cobot
                 Automated Guided Vehicle:    First           (collaborative robot) able to
                    follows a fixed path  Humanoid Robot       operate safely near people
                                                                                       DJI's first drone
                                                                                          Phantom 1


                    Barrett Electronics      WABOT-1              Northwestern                                 Tesla's first
                                                                                                               humanoid
                                                                                                                Optimus
                        1950       1960       1970        1980       1990       2000       2010        2020
                 The concept of automated machines has fascinated humans for centuries. Ancient civilisations had basic automatons
                 driven by water or clockwork. However, the term “robot” itself was coined much later by Czech playwright Karel Čapek
                 in his 1920 play “R.U.R.” (Rossum’s Universal Robots), where he imagined artificial workers.
                 The true birth of modern robotics began in the mid-20th century with significant milestones:
                    Early Industrial Robots (1960s): The first industrial robot, called “Unimate,” was introduced in 1961 by George Devol
                 u
                    and Joseph Engelberger. It was used in General Motors factories for tasks like handling hot die castings, which were
                    dangerous for humans. These early robots were primarily pre-programmed manipulators.
                    Advancements in Computing (1970s-1980s): The rapid development of microprocessors and computer technology
                 u
                    allowed robots to become more sophisticated. They could perform more complex calculations, store more data, and
                    become more versatile.
                    Rise of Artificial Intelligence (1990s-Present): The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has been a game-changer.
                 u
                    AI has given robots the ability to learn, adapt, make decisions in uncertain environments, and interact more naturally
                    with humans. This is where the concepts of autonomous and semi-autonomous operation truly come into play.
                 The evolution of robotics showcases a journey from simple, pre-programmed machines to highly intelligent, adaptable
                 systems that are transforming industries, healthcare, exploration, and even our daily lives.

                                                            Robots Are Learning Human Emotions

                                           Humanoid robots like Sophia and Pepper are designed to read human emotions
                                         through facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. They can respond with
                          BRAINY          smiles, nods, or empathetic phrases. While they don’t actually feel emotions, this
                           FACT         “emotional intelligence” makes them more natural in customer service, education, or
                                         therapy. For example, a robot therapist can help reduce loneliness in elderly people.
                                               It raises the question: if a robot acts empathetic, does it matter that it
                                                                     isn’t truly “feeling”?



                                      The Festival Fiasco
                                      At a festival in China, a dancing robot behind a safety barrier suddenly lurched at the crowd,
                                      startling  everyone.  Security  guards  rushed  in and  pulled  it  back,  while onlookers  snapped
                                      photos. Engineers said later it was a “program setting error”—and set new rules for robot
                                      public performances.
                  actual funny
                    incidents         Learning: Always test robots thoroughly before letting them meet a crowd.

                                                                                                                       15
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="18"><![CDATA[How Robots Operate: The Core Components

              To understand how a robot works, it’s helpful to break it down into its main functional parts, much like understanding the
              different systems in the human body.

              Mechanical Structure (The Body)

                                                                 Manipulator: This is similar to a human
                                                                 arm that has different joints and flexibility


                                                                 End-effector: The end-effector represents the palm and
                                                                 fingers of a human, meaning  it  can firmly grasp and
                                                                 manipulate objects in the more advanced robotic arms

                                                                 The Locomotor: In a human, muscles control the movement.
                                                                 In  a Robotic  arm, motors  control the  movement  with
                                                                 Electric, either Hydraulic or Pneumatic energy resources












                                                        Actuator












              This refers to the physical build of the robot, enabling it to move and interact with the physical world.
                  Manipulators and Actuators: These are the moving parts that enable the robot to perform actions.
              u
                     Actuators are the “muscles” of the robot, converting energy (usually electrical) into mechanical motion. Common
                     l
                     actuators include:
                     �   Electric Motors: Used in most robots for rotational movement (e.g., wheels, robotic arm joints).
                     �   Hydraulic Systems: Use pressurised fluid for powerful, heavy-duty movements (e.g., large industrial robots,
                         construction machinery).
                     �   Pneumatic Systems: Use compressed air for quick, lightweight movements (e.g., pick-and-place robots).
                     Manipulators are the arms or limbs of the robot, built from segments connected by joints, allowing a range
                     l
                     of motion.
                  End-Effectors: These are the specialised “hands” or tools attached to the end of a robot’s manipulator, designed for
              u
                  specific tasks.
                     Grippers: For picking up and holding objects (e.g., in assembly lines).
                     l
                     Welders: For joining metal parts (e.g., in car manufacturing).
                     l
                     Sprayers: For painting or coating.
                     l
                     Drills, cutters, cameras, sensors: And many more, depending on the application.
                     l

              16
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="19"><![CDATA[Example: Consider a robotic vacuum cleaner. Its mechanical structure includes wheels (driven by electric motors acting
                 as actuators) for movement, and a rotating brush or suction nozzle as its end-effector to clean the floor.


                                                           AI Can Write, But It's Not Human Thought
                                         AI chatbots (like me!) can write essays, poems, and even code. But here’s the catch:
                                      AI doesn’t “understand” what it writes—it generates text by predicting word patterns from
                          BRAINY      its training data. It’s like an ultra-smart mirror reflecting human knowledge. This makes AI
                           FACT
                                       incredibly powerful for brainstorming, summarizing, or answering questions—but it’s not
                                              the same as human thinking, which is driven by curiosity, emotions, and
                                                                      lived experiences.



                                      The Sleepy Robot
                                      Somewhere in India, a robot police assistant was designed to work round the clock, no sleep.
                                      When asked why it never got tired, it replied, “My battery drains, but I don’t know what sleep
                                      means!” A constable, caught napping on duty, told the robot, “Try resting your circuits some
                                      day!” The robot responded, “Machines don’t nap, but I’ll try.”
                  actual funny
                    incidents         Learning: Robots don’t tire, but humans do—so take breaks and balance work.

                 Control System (The Brain)

                 This is the intellectual core of the robot, responsible for processing information, making decisions, and sending commands
                 to the mechanical parts.
                    Processor/Computer: This is the central processing unit (CPU) or an embedded computer that acts as the robot’s
                 u
                    brain. It executes the instructions given in the robot’s program, performs calculations, and manages data flow from
                    sensors to actuators. Modern robots often use powerful multi-core processors, sometimes even specialised AI chips,
                    to handle complex computations quickly.
                    Software/Algorithms: This is the set of instructions, rules, and procedures that tell the robot what to do.
                 u
                        Operating System: Similar to the OS on your computer or phone, managing the robot’s hardware and software
                       l
                        resources.
                        Control Algorithms: These algorithms determine how the robot moves, how it maintains stability, and how it
                       l
                        performs its tasks precisely.
                        AI Algorithms: Increasingly, advanced algorithms for perception, learning, planning, and decision-making are
                       l
                        integrated.
                    Programming Languages: Robots are programmed using various languages, depending on their complexity and
                 u
                    application. Common languages include:
                        C++: Often used for high-performance applications where speed and efficiency are critical (e.g., real-time control).
                       l
                        Python: Popular for its simplicity and extensive libraries, especially in AI and machine learning for robotics.
                       l
                        Specialised Robotic Languages: Manufacturers often have their own proprietary languages for their specific
                       l
                        robot models.
                 Example: In a self-driving car, the control system continuously receives data from various sensors (like cameras and
                 radar). Its processor uses sophisticated software and AI algorithms (programmed in languages like C++ or Python) to
                 interpret this data, identify obstacles, predict movements of other vehicles, and then send precise commands to the
                 steering wheel, brakes, and accelerator (its actuators).






                                                                                                                        17
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="20"><![CDATA[The Role of Sensors: Robot’s ‘Senses’



                                              Vision                        Communication
                  CMOS image sensor  IR sensor  Micromirror                                  Oscillators, Tuner, Switches, & Filter

                                               Position                          Vision Focus
                                                                                                Digital Actuators & Endoscopes
                    Linear Encoders & Accelerometer

                                          Sound                                        Smell
                                                                                                   Gas & Odour sensors
                            Microphone
                                                                                           Taste

                                  Speech                                                          Humidity & Temperature sensor
                     Micro Speaker
                                                                                         Pressure
                                                                                                    Pressure sensors
                                     Touch
                    Force & Haptic sensors
                                                                                      Electrical
                                                                                                Electrical sensors




              Just as our senses allow us to interact with the world, sensors are crucial for robots to perceive their environment.
              Without sensors, a robot would be “blind” and “deaf,” unable to react to changes around it.


                                                 Robots Have Explored the Deep Ocean More Than Humans
                                       The deep ocean is one of Earth’s most unexplored frontiers, with crushing pressure
                                       and darkness that make it impossible for humans to dive very far. Robots like ROVs
                        BRAINY
                         FACT        (Remotely Operated Vehicles) and AUVs (Autonomous Underwater Vehicles) explore
                                    these regions instead. They’ve discovered new species, mapped the ocean floor, and even
                                     found shipwrecks lost for centuries. With AI guiding their navigation, underwater robots
                                               are humanity’s key to unlocking the mysteries of our own planet.


              What are Sensors?

              Sensors are electronic devices that detect and measure physical quantities or events in the environment and convert
              them into electrical signals that the robot’s control system can understand. Think of them as the robot’s eyes, ears, and
              touch.
              Types of Sensors and Their Applications

              Robots use a variety of sensors, often in combination (a concept known as sensor fusion) to get a complete picture of
              their surroundings.
              Vision Sensors (Cameras)

                  Function: These are like the robot’s eyes. They capture images or videos, providing rich visual information about the
              u
                  environment.



              18
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="21"><![CDATA[Applications
                 u
                        Object Recognition: Identifying different objects (e.g., distinguishing apples from oranges on a conveyor belt).
                       l
                        Navigation and Mapping: Helping robots understand their location and create maps of their surroundings (e.g.,
                       l
                        a drone mapping an area).
                        Quality Control: Inspecting manufactured products for defects or verifying assembly.
                       l
                        Facial Recognition: Identifying individuals.
                       l
                    Example: In an automated fruit sorting plant, a robotic arm uses a high-resolution camera to capture images of
                 u
                    fruits. An AI system then analyses these images to determine the fruit’s ripeness, size, and any defects, guiding the
                    robot to sort them accordingly.
                 Proximity and Distance Sensors
                    Function: These sensors detect the presence of objects and measure the distance to them without physical contact.
                 u
                    Types:
                 u
                        Ultrasonic Sensors: Emit high-frequency sound waves and measure the time it takes for the echo to return
                       l
                        (like bats). Good for short to medium distances and detecting transparent objects.
                        Infrared (IR) Sensors: Emit infrared light and detect its reflection. Useful for short-range object detection.
                       l
                        Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging): Uses pulsed laser light to measure distances. It can create highly accurate
                       l
                        3D maps of the environment.
                    Applications:
                 u
                        Collision Avoidance: Preventing robots from bumping into walls, furniture, or people.
                       l
                        Navigation: Helping robotic vacuum cleaners or autonomous mobile robots navigate rooms.
                       l
                        Automated Doors: Detecting people approaching.
                       l
                        Parking Assistance Systems: In cars, to gauge distance to obstacles.
                       l
                    Example: A robotic vacuum cleaner uses ultrasonic sensors around its perimeter. When it approaches a wall or a
                 u
                    piece of furniture, the sensor detects the obstacle, and the robot adjusts its path to avoid a collision. Self-driving cars
                    heavily rely on Lidar for precise environmental mapping.
                 Touch/Tactile Sensors
                    Function: These sensors detect physical contact, pressure, or force exerted on the robot’s surface or grippers. They
                 u
                    act like the robot’s sense of touch.
                    Applications:
                 u
                        Grasping Delicate Objects: Adjusting the grip pressure to avoid crushing fragile items.
                       l
                        Obstacle Detection: If a robot bumps into something unexpectedly.
                       l
                        Human-Robot Interaction: Ensuring safety when robots work alongside humans (cobots).
                       l
                    Example: A robotic hand designed to pick up a raw egg might have tactile sensors on its fingertips. These sensors
                 u
                    provide feedback on the pressure being applied, allowing the robot to adjust its grip just enough to hold the egg
                    without breaking it.
                 Force/Torque Sensors

                    Function: These sensors measure the forces and rotational forces (torque) being applied to or by the robot’s joints
                 u
                    or end-effectors.
                    Applications:
                 u
                        Precise Manipulation: Enabling robots to perform delicate tasks requiring specific force application.
                       l
                        Human-Robot Collaboration (Cobots): If a cobot accidentally pushes against a human, the force sensor can
                       l
                        detect this, and the robot can immediately stop or retract to ensure safety.
                        Assembly Tasks: Ensuring screws are tightened with the correct torque.
                       l


                                                                                                                       19
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="22"><![CDATA[Example: In a robotic surgery, a force/torque sensor on the surgical instrument allows the robot to provide feedback
              u
                  to the surgeon about the forces being exerted on tissues, leading to more precise and safer operations.
              Other Important Sensors

                  Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs): Consist of accelerometers (measure acceleration) and gyroscopes (measure
              u
                  angular velocity). They are crucial for knowing a robot’s orientation, tilt, and movement, especially in drones, self-
                  balancing robots, and humanoid robots.
                  GPS (Global Positioning System): Used for outdoor navigation, providing the robot’s exact geographical location
              u
                  (latitude, longitude, altitude).
                  Microphones: For detecting sounds, speech recognition, and locating sound sources, enabling voice control for robots.
              u
                                                   Robot Sensors Comparison



                                Sensor Type              Function          Applications         Example


                                                                         Object recognition
                                                       Capture visual
                             Vision Sensors                              navigation, quality   Fruit sorting using
                                                        information        control, facial    image analysis
                                                                            recognition

                                                        Detect object   Collision avoidance
                              Proximity/Distance       presence and    navigation, automated   Robotic vacuum
                              Sensors                    distance         doors, parking     avoiding obstacles
                                                                            assistance

                                                       Detect physical   Grasping delicate
                              Touch/Tectile Sensors   contact/pressure   objects, obstacle     Robotic hand
                                                                         detection, human-    picking up egg
                                                                         robot interaction


                                                     Measure forces and   precise manipulation,
                              Force/Torque Sensors    rotational forces    robot safely,     Robotic providing
                                                                          assembly tasks      force feedback


                                                                         IMUs: Orientation
                                                     Varies depending on   and movement, GPS:   Drones using IMUs
                              Other Sensors                             Outdoor navigation.
                                                         the sensor                             for stability
                                                                        Microphones: Sound
                                                                            detection.


              The intelligent fusion of data from multiple sensors allows robots to build a comprehensive and robust understanding of
              their dynamic environment, which is essential for autonomous operation.


                                                            AI Has Bias Because Humans Do
                                      AI is only as fair as the data it learns from. If the data contains biases—like stereotypes
                                        about gender or race—AI can unintentionally adopt those biases. For example, an
                        BRAINY
                         FACT           AI trained mostly on photos of men might perform poorly at recognizing women.
                                     This shows that AI reflects human society, flaws included. That’s why scientists are now
                                    working on ethical AI, which is trained carefully to avoid harmful biases and create fairer
                                                                 outcomes for everyone.





              20
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="23"><![CDATA[The Power of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Robotics

                 While  sensors give  robots  their  ‘senses’  and mechanical
                 structures  give them  their  ‘body’,  it  is  Artificial  Intelligence
                 (AI) that provides the ‘intelligence’ – the ability to reason, learn,
                 make  decisions,  and adapt.  AI is what transforms a simple
                 machine into a truly intelligent system.




                 What is AI in Robotics?
                 In robotics,  AI is  the  field  that  equips  robots  with cognitive
                 abilities, allowing them to:
                    Perceive: Interpret complex sensor data (e.g., understanding
                 u
                    what a camera image shows).
                    Reason: Make logical deductions and plan actions based on its understanding.
                 u
                    Learn: Improve its performance over time through experience or data.
                 u
                    Decide: Choose the best course of action in uncertain or changing environments.
                 u
                 Essentially, AI helps robots to think and behave in ways that would typically require human intelligence.

                 Key AI Techniques Used in Robotics
                 Several branches of AI are particularly vital for robotics:

                 Supervised Learning
                 Imagine you are preparing for a Mathematics exam. Your teacher gives you a textbook filled with solved problems. You
                 study these problems, understanding the steps and solutions for each type. When you face a new problem in the exam,
                 you can apply what you’ve learned from the solved examples to find the correct answer.
                 This is exactly  how  Supervised Learning works. The “solved problems”  are the  labelled data, where the inputs
                 (the problems) are linked to the outputs (the solutions). The machine learning model is like you, the student, learning to
                 map the inputs to the correct outputs. It learns from these examples so that when it sees new, unseen data, it can make
                 accurate predictions or classifications.
                    Example: Think of a spam filter in your email. When you mark an email as ‘spam,’ you are essentially giving a
                 u
                    label to it. The system learns from thousands of these labelled emails—some marked as ‘spam’ and others as ‘not
                    spam.’ Over time, it learns to identify characteristics of spam emails (like certain keywords or sender addresses) and
                    automatically sends new, incoming spam emails to your spam folder without you having to manually label them.

                 Unsupervised Learning
                 Now, imagine your teacher gives you a large, unsorted pile of books from the school library. They don’t tell you which
                 subject each book belongs to. Your task is to organise them on the shelves. You start by looking at the books and notice
                 that some are about science, others are about history, and a few are storybooks. You group the similar-looking books
                 together, even without a label, purely by observing their characteristics—like the content, pictures, or title.
                 Unsupervised Learning is just like this. The machine learning model is given a large dataset with no labels or guidance.
                 Its job is to find hidden patterns, group similar data points together (this is called clustering), and discover structures on
                 its own. It’s about finding order in chaos.

                 u   Example: A popular streaming platform like Netflix or Amazon Prime Video uses unsupervised learning to recommend
                    movies. They analyse the viewing habits of millions of users—what movies they watch, how long they watch, and what
                    they rate highly. The system then groups users with similar tastes together and recommends new movies to them
                    based on what others in their group have watched and enjoyed. The system learns these patterns without ever being
                    told, “this person likes action movies.”

                                                                                                                        21
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="24"><![CDATA[Semi-Supervised Learning
              Let’s go back to our classroom example. Your teacher gives you a mix of solved and unsolved problems. There are only a
              few solved ones, but a huge number of unsolved ones. You first study the solved examples to get a basic understanding.
              Then,  you  use  that  knowledge to  try and solve the  other  problems.  As you  work through them,  you  gain  a deeper
              understanding of the entire topic.
              Self-supervised learning operates on this principle. It uses a small amount of labelled data to get a head start, and then
              uses a much larger amount of unlabelled data to complete the learning process. This is particularly useful when getting
              labelled data is difficult or expensive, like in many real-world scenarios.

                  Example: Consider a medical imaging system designed to detect a rare disease. Getting a doctor to manually label
              u
                  thousands of X-ray images for the disease is extremely time-consuming and costly. Instead, you can use a small
                  set of labelled images (those already diagnosed by a doctor) to train the model. The model then uses this initial
                  knowledge to analyse a huge dataset of unlabelled X-rays, using patterns it learned to identify potential cases on its
                  own, which can then be verified by a doctor.
              Reinforcement Learning
              Think about learning to ride a bicycle. You don’t have a textbook with step-by-step instructions. Instead, you learn by
              doing. You pedal a little, and if you stay balanced, you feel a sense of achievement (a reward). If you wobble and fall, it’s
              a negative experience (a penalty). Over time, you learn which actions (like turning the handlebars or leaning your body)
              lead to rewards and avoid the actions that lead to penalties, until you can ride perfectly.
              This is the core of Reinforcement Learning. An agent (the machine) learns to make decisions by interacting with an
              environment. It receives rewards for ‘good’ actions and penalties for ‘bad’ actions. Its ultimate goal is to learn a strategy,
              or a policy, that maximises its total reward over time.

                  Example: Have you ever seen a robotic arm in a factory? Using reinforcement learning, you can train a robotic arm
              u
                  to pick up an object and place it in a box. You don’t program every single movement. Instead, you give it a reward
                  when it successfully places the object and a penalty if it drops it. The robot learns through a process of trial and error,
                  adjusting its movements and grip until it masters the task with a high success rate.
              Self-Supervised Learning                                    How Does Machine Learning Work?

              Finally, let’s  consider a new way of learning. Imagine
              you’re  given a book  with half  the words missing  from
              each sentence. You’re  asked to  fill  in the blanks. By
              understanding the context of the words around the blank   Training
              space, you can figure out what the missing word should     data
              be. You’re essentially creating your own learning task from      (Unacceptable)     (Acceptable)
              the data itself.
              This is the essence of Self-supervised learning. The model
              generates  its  own  labels  or ‘tasks’  from the  unlabelled   Train ML     Accuracy           Successful
              input  data. It learns  by solving these created  tasks,   algorithm                             model
              which helps it  understand  the underlying  structure  and
              representations of the data. This pre-training makes the
              model  very powerful  and ready for  other, more specific
              tasks later on.                                         Model input
                  Example: A great  example is                           data
              u
                  training  a  model  to  understand  a
                  language. The model is given vast
                  amounts of text from the internet.
                                                   New input          ML algorithm          Prediction
                                                      data
              22
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="25"><![CDATA[A task can be created where the model has to predict a word that has been intentionally masked out in a sentence.
                    For instance, in the sentence “The capital of France is [MASK],” the model learns to predict ‘Paris’. By solving millions
                    of such ‘fill-in-the-blank’ puzzles, the model learns the grammar, vocabulary, and meaning of the language, even
                    without anyone manually labelling the text. This foundational understanding can then be used for more specific tasks
                    like translating a sentence or summarising a long article.
                    Applications:
                 u
                        Object Recognition and Classification: Identifying different types of items on a conveyor belt.
                       l
                        Predictive Maintenance: Learning from historical data to predict when a robot’s component might fail, allowing
                       l
                        for proactive repairs.
                        Robotic Grasping: Teaching a robot how to pick up objects of varying shapes and sizes.
                       l
                        Autonomous Navigation: Learning optimal paths and behaviours in complex environments.
                       l
                    Example: Imagine training a robot to learn how to walk. Using Reinforcement Learning, the robot might try different
                 u
                    leg movements. If it stays balanced and moves forward, it receives a ‘reward’. If it falls, it receives a ‘penalty’. Over
                    many trials, it ‘learns’ the most effective sequence of movements to walk steadily.
                 Computer Vision
                    Concept: This is a field of AI that enables robots and computers to “see” and interpret visual information from the
                 u
                    real world, just like humans do. It involves processing images and videos to extract meaningful information.
                    Applications:
                 u
                        Object Detection and Tracking: Identifying specific objects (e.g., a person, a car, a traffic light) and following
                       l
                        their movement.
                        Scene Understanding: Interpreting the overall context of a visual scene (e.g., “this is a busy street,” “this is a
                       l
                        quiet office”).
                        Visual Servoing: Using camera feedback to precisely control robot movements (e.g., aligning a part for assembly).
                       l
                        Quality Inspection: Automated visual inspection of products for defects.
                       l
                    Example: A self-driving car heavily relies on computer vision. Its cameras capture real-time video of the road.
                 u
                    AI algorithms then process these images to identify traffic lights (red, yellow, green), road signs (stop, turn), lane
                    markings, pedestrians, and other vehicles, enabling the car to make informed driving decisions.

                 Natural Language Processing (NLP)
                    Concept: NLP is an AI field that deals with the interaction between computers and human language. It allows robots
                 u
                    to understand, interpret, and generate human language (both spoken and written).
                    Applications:
                 u
                        Voice Control: Enabling robots to understand and respond to spoken commands.
                       l
                        Human-Robot Interaction: Facilitating more natural and intuitive communication between humans and robots.
                       l
                        Chatbots and Virtual Assistants: Though not physical robots, these demonstrate NLP capabilities.
                       l
                                         The machine responds                     A human talks to the
                                           with an audio file                          machine







                               Data-to-audio conversion         How NLP                    The machine captures
                                     occurs                       Work                         the audio







                                         The machine processes                       Audio-to-text
                                            the text's data                       conversion takes place

                                                                                                                       23
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="26"><![CDATA[Example: A service robot in a hospital might use NLP to understand a nurse’s spoken request like, “Please deliver
              u
                  medication to Room 305,” and then execute the task.
              Path Planning and Navigation Algorithms
                  Concept: These AI algorithms are crucial for autonomous robots to move intelligently from one point to another while
              u
                  avoiding obstacles and optimising their path (e.g., shortest distance, fastest time).
                  Process:
              u
                     Mapping: Creating a representation of the environment (e.g., a 2D map of a room or a 3D model of an outdoor
                     l
                     area) using sensor data.
                     Localisation: Determining the robot’s precise position within that map.
                     l
                     Path Planning: Calculating an optimal path from the current location to the target location, considering obstacles
                     l
                     and robot capabilities.
                     Motion Control: Executing the planned path by sending commands to the robot’s actuators.
                     l
                  Applications:
              u
                     Autonomous Vehicles: Navigating complex road networks.
                     l
                     Warehouse Robots: Moving goods efficiently between storage locations.
                     l
                     Delivery Robots: Delivering packages in urban environments.
                     l
                                                                                                 Object Recognition
                                                                                                 and Classification

                                                                                                 Predictive
                                                       Supervised Learning
                                                                                                 Maintenance
                      Machine Learning
                                                       Reinforcement Learning                    Robotic Grasping


                                                                                                 Autonomous
                                                       Object Detection and Tracking
                                                                                                 Navigation

                                                       Scene Understanding
                      Computer Vision                                                            Self-Driving Car
                                                       Visual Servoing


                                                       Quality Inspection


                                                       Voice Control


                      Natural Language
                      Processing                       Human-Robot Interaction                   Service Robot


                                                       Chatbots and Virtual Assistants


                                                       Mapping


                                                       Localisation
                      Path Planning and                                                          Autonomous Vehicles
                      navigation Algorithms
                                                       Path Planning


                                                       Motion Control

              24
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="27"><![CDATA[Example: A delivery robot operating in a city uses GPS and Lidar to create a detailed map of its surroundings
                 u
                    (mapping). It then uses localization algorithms to know exactly where it is on that map. When given a delivery
                    address, path planning algorithms calculate the safest and most efficient route, avoiding pedestrians, traffic, and
                    construction, and the robot executes this route using motion control.
                 The synergy between advanced sensors and sophisticated AI algorithms is what truly unlocks the potential of autonomous
                 and semi-autonomous robotics.
                 Autonomous vs. Semi-Autonomous Operation

                 The degree to which a robot can operate independently from human control defines its level of autonomy. It’s not a simple
                 “on/off” switch but rather a spectrum.

                                                       Autonomy from Start to Finish
                    Level          Concept                          Definition                       Who's in Control



                      0       Human Operation     The Operator controls the machine at all times.



                      1       Automation          The operator has overall control of the machine and
                              (Function-specific)  is responsible for its safe operation, but can transfer
                                                  limited control over a specific function (like moving
                                                  a bucket or blade) to the machine.

                      2       Semi-autonomous     The machine accomplishes a subset of its defined
                                                  tasks  without  operator  interaction.  The operator
                                                  performs the remaining tasks.


                      3       Autonomous          The machine  accomplishes  all its  defined  tasks
                                                  without operator interaction and is responsible for
                                                  all safety-critical earthmoving functions.



                 Autonomous Robots
                    Definition: An  autonomous  robot is a robot  that  can operate  entirely  on its  own,  without  continuous  human
                 u
                    intervention, once it has been given a task or a general goal. It can perceive its environment, make decisions, and act
                    independently to achieve its objectives.
                    Characteristics:
                 u
                        High Level of Intelligence: Capable of complex reasoning, learning, and adaptation.
                       l
                        Sophisticated Sensors: Extensive sensor suites to gather comprehensive environmental data.
                       l
                        Robust Decision-Making  Algorithms: AI algorithms  that  allow it  to  handle  unforeseen  circumstances  and
                       l
                        uncertain data.
                        Self-Correction: Ability to detect errors and correct its own actions.
                       l
                    Examples:
                 u
                        Self-Driving Cars (Level 5 autonomy): The ultimate goal is for these vehicles to navigate all road conditions
                       l
                        and situations without any human input whatsoever. While true Level 5 cars are still in development, current
                        advanced prototypes show significant autonomous capabilities.
                        Robotic Vacuum Cleaners (e.g., Roomba): Once started, they map your home, navigate around furniture, clean
                       l
                        designated areas, and return to their charging dock all by themselves.



                                                                                                                       25
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="28"><![CDATA[Mars Rovers (e.g., Perseverance): Due to the immense communication delays with Earth, these robots operate
                     l
                     with significant autonomy, making decisions about their path, scientific observations, and sample collection on
                     their own, based on high-level commands from NASA.
                     Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) in Warehouses: These robots follow pre-defined paths or use navigation
                     l
                     systems to transport goods within a facility without human drivers.
              Semi-Autonomous Robots
                  Definition: A semi-autonomous robot is a robot that performs tasks with a degree of independence but still requires
              u
                  human oversight, input, or intervention for certain decisions, complex situations, or safety protocols.
                  Characteristics:
              u
                     Shared Control: Control is distributed between the human operator and the robot.
                     l
                     Human Oversight: A human can monitor the robot’s actions, provide guidance, or override its decisions.
                     l
                     Collaboration: Often designed to work closely with humans, rather than entirely replacing them.
                     l
                     Specific Task Autonomy: May be fully autonomous for specific sub-tasks but requires human input for overall
                     l
                     mission planning or handling anomalies.
                  Examples:
              u
                     Surgical Robots (e.g., Da Vinci Surgical System): The robot provides highly precise, tremor-free movements
                     l
                     and enhanced 3D vision, but the surgeon is always in direct control, guiding the robotic arms from a console. The
                     robot enhances human capability rather than replacing it.
                     Drones for Aerial Surveying: A drone can fly autonomously along a pre-programmed path to collect data (e.g.,
                     l
                     mapping a construction site). However, a human operator typically handles the launch, landing, monitors its
                     flight, and can take manual control if unexpected weather conditions or technical issues arise.
                     Industrial Collaborative Robots (Cobots): These robots work alongside human workers without safety cages.
                     l
                     They can perform repetitive tasks autonomously, but if a human enters their workspace, they might slow down,
                     stop, or adjust their path, often requiring human instruction for new tasks or problem-solving.
                     Advanced  Driver-Assistance Systems (ADAS)  in Cars: Features  like  adaptive  cruise  control,  lane-keeping
                     l
                     assist, and automatic emergency braking are semi-autonomous. They assist the driver but do not fully take over
                     driving.
              The distinction between autonomous and semi-autonomous operations is crucial in understanding the capabilities and
              limitations of robots in various applications. As AI and sensor technologies continue to advance, the line between these
              two categories will likely blur further, with more robots gaining higher levels of autonomy.

              Ethical Considerations and The Future of Robotics

              As robots become more sophisticated and integrated into our society, it becomes imperative to consider the broader
              implications and future directions of this field.
              Ethical Considerations

              The rise of advanced robotics brings forth several ethical dilemmas that society must address:
              1.  Job Displacement: As robots become capable of performing tasks traditionally done by humans (e.g., manufacturing,
                  customer service, and even some analytical roles), there is a concern about potential job losses and the need for
                  workforce reskilling.
                     Example: How will society adapt if autonomous trucks replace human truck drivers on a large scale?
                     l
              2.  Safety and Reliability: Ensuring that robots operate safely, especially when interacting with humans. This includes
                  preventing accidents, ensuring software reliability, and establishing clear protocols for malfunctions.
                     Example: Who is responsible if a self-driving car causes an accident? The manufacturer, the software developer,
                     l
                     or the owner?


              26
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="29"><![CDATA[3.  Privacy: Robots, especially those with advanced sensors like cameras and microphones (e.g., smart home robots,
                    delivery drones), can collect vast amounts of personal data, raising concerns about privacy and data security.
                        Example: Should a domestic robot be allowed to record conversations or map the inside of a home without
                       l
                        explicit consent?
                 4.  Accountability and Responsibility: In scenarios where autonomous robots make decisions that lead to harm or
                    error, determining who is accountable (the programmer, the owner, the manufacturer) becomes complex. This is
                    especially critical for autonomous weapons systems.
                 5.  Bias in AI: If AI models used in robots are trained on biased data, the robot’s decisions could inadvertently perpetuate
                    societal biases, leading to unfair or discriminatory outcomes.
                        Example: A facial recognition robot might be less accurate in identifying certain demographics if its training data
                       l
                        was not diverse.
                 These ethical considerations are not just theoretical; they are real-world challenges that require thoughtful discussion and
                 policy-making involving technologists, ethicists, policymakers, and the public.

                 The Future of Robotics
                 The field of robotics is dynamic and holds immense promise for the future:
                 1.  Human-Robot Collaboration (Cobots): We will see more robots designed to work seamlessly and safely alongside
                    humans, enhancing productivity and safety in diverse environments, from factories to hospitals.
                 2.  Robots in Healthcare: Beyond  surgical  assistance,  robots  will play  a larger role in patient  care (e.g., delivering
                    medication, assisting with rehabilitation), elder care (companionship, monitoring), and drug discovery.
                 3.  Exploration: Robots will continue to be at the forefront of exploring environments too dangerous or inaccessible for
                    humans, such as deep-sea exploration, space missions to distant planets, and disaster recovery zones.
                 4.  Personal Robots: The dream of domestic robots assisting with daily chores, providing companionship, or offering
                    security will become more widespread and sophisticated.
                 5.  AI  Advancements: Continued breakthroughs  in  Artificial  Intelligence, especially in areas like deep  learning,
                    reinforcement learning, and generative AI, will lead to robots that are more adaptable, intelligent, and capable of
                    learning in unstructured environments.
                 6.  Cross-Disciplinary Fields: Robotics will increasingly integrate with other fields like material science (for softer, more
                    compliant robots), neuroscience (for brain-inspired AI), and biotechnology (for bio-hybrid robots).
                 7.  Ethical AI and Trustworthy Robotics: A major focus will be on developing AI and robotic systems that are not only
                    intelligent but also explainable, fair, transparent, and aligned with human values.
                 The future of robotics  is not just  about  building  smarter machines,  but  about  building  machines  that  can positively
                 impact society, enhance human capabilities, and solve some of the world’s most pressing challenges. For students today,
                 understanding  robotics  is not  just  about  technology;  it’s  about  preparing  for  a future where humans and intelligent
                 machines will increasingly co-exist and collaborate. This field offers immense opportunities for innovation and contribution.

                 New Age Robotics Systems: Advanced AI and Machine Learning Applications
                 The integration of advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) has propelled robotics into a “new
                 age,” moving beyond simple automation to create highly intelligent, adaptable, and collaborative systems. These New
                 Age Robotics Systems are transforming various industries by enabling greater autonomy, precision, and efficiency. Let’s
                 explore their impact in three significant sectors: Smart Manufacturing, Healthcare, and Autonomous Vehicles.

                 Smart Manufacturing (Industry 4.0 and beyond)
                 Smart Manufacturing, often associated with “Industry 4.0,” is a revolution in industrial production driven by technologies
                 like AI, robotics, the Internet of Things (IoT), and big data. New Age Robotics Systems are at its core, making factories
                 more flexible, efficient, and capable of mass customisation.


                                                                                                                       27
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="30"><![CDATA[VR/AR                                                        IoT





                                3D Printing                                              Cloud Computing





                                 Robotics                                                   Big Data
                                                             Smart Factory





                                Automation                  Cyber Resistant                 ERP/SCM
                                                           Connectivity and
                                                              Networks


                              Design Smart Products         Digital Production           Digital Services

                                                  Data Protection and Information Security

              Collaborative Robots (Cobots)
                  Concept: Unlike traditional  industrial  robots,  which are often  caged  for  safety,  cobots  are designed  to  work
              u
                  safely alongside human employees, sharing the workspace without physical barriers. They use advanced sensors
                  (like force-torque sensors and vision systems) and AI to detect human presence and movements, ensuring safety by
                  slowing down or stopping if a human gets too close.
                  AI/ML Application: Machine Learning algorithms enable cobots to learn tasks by demonstration (e.g., a human guiding
              u
                  the robot’s arm once, and the cobot learns the motion) and adapt to variations in the workpiece or environment.
                  They use AI for real-time risk assessment.
                  Impact: Increased flexibility in production lines, improved productivity through human-robot synergy, reduced injury
              u
                  risk for monotonous or strenuous tasks, and enablement of high-mix, low-volume production.
                  Example: In an electronics assembly plant, a cobot might hold a circuit board in place while a human worker manually
              u
                  inserts tiny components, or vice-versa. The cobot’s AI ensures it doesn’t collide with the human’s hand, making the
                  process faster and safer.
              Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) for Logistics

                  Concept: AMRs are intelligent robots that navigate dynamic
              u
                  environments  without  requiring  fixed  tracks  or magnetic
                  strips. They use sophisticated mapping, localization, and path
                  planning algorithms,  often powered by  AI,  to  move goods,
                  materials,  or components  autonomously  within  factories  or
                  warehouses.
                  AI/ML Application: AI-powered Simultaneous  Localisation
              u
                  and Mapping (SLAM) algorithms allow AMRs to build maps of
                  their surroundings while simultaneously figuring out their own location within that map. Machine Learning helps them
                  learn optimal routes, predict traffic patterns, and navigate complex, changing environments efficiently.
                  Impact: Revolutionised  internal logistics,  significantly  reducing  material  handling costs,  improving  efficiency,
              u
                  increasing throughput, and enabling 24/7 operation in warehouses.


              28
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="31"><![CDATA[Example: In a large e-commerce warehouse, AMRs retrieve shelves containing ordered items and bring them to
                 u
                    human  pickers, significantly speeding up  order  fulfilment.  They  intelligently navigate around  obstacles like fallen
                    boxes or human workers without needing pre-defined routes.
                 Predictive Maintenance and Quality Control
                    Concept: New Age Robotics Systems, often connected through IoT, continuously collect data on their own performance
                 u
                    (e.g., motor  vibrations,  temperature,  operational  hours). This data  is fed into  AI/ML models  to  predict  potential
                    equipment failures before they occur and to identify defects in manufactured products.
                    AI/ML Application: Machine Learning algorithms (especially supervised learning and anomaly detection) are trained
                 u
                    on vast datasets of normal and faulty robot operation or product defects. They can identify subtle patterns that
                    indicate impending failure or quality issues, allowing for proactive maintenance or immediate rejection of faulty
                    products.
                    Impact: Reduced downtime  due  to  unexpected  equipment  failure, lower  maintenance  costs,  improved  product
                 u
                    quality, and reduced waste in manufacturing processes.
                    Example: A robotic arm on an assembly line might have built-in sensors monitoring its joint temperatures and
                 u
                    vibration levels. An AI system continuously analyses this data. If it detects a subtle increase in vibration patterns that
                    it has learned to associate with impending bearing failure, it can alert maintenance staff to replace the bearing before
                    the robot breaks down completely, preventing costly production halts.

                 Healthcare Robotics
                 Robotics in healthcare is moving beyond traditional surgical aids to encompass a broader range of applications, leveraging
                 AI for greater precision, assistance, and patient care.

                 Advanced Surgical Robots
                    Concept: While surgical robots like the Da Vinci system have
                 u
                    been  around, New  Age  Surgical Robotics  are incorporating
                    more AI for enhanced autonomy in specific tasks, improved
                    precision, and better decision support for surgeons.
                    AI/ML Application: Computer Vision and ML algorithms can
                 u
                    assist  surgeons  by  identifying  critical  anatomical  structures,
                    providing  real-time  data  overlays, or even autonomously
                    performing highly repetitive, precise sub-tasks (e.g., suturing
                    in  specific  layers)  under  human  supervision.  Reinforcement
                    Learning is being explored to train robots for complex surgical
                    manoeuvres in simulations.
                    Impact: Enhanced surgical precision, reduced invasiveness, faster patient recovery times, and expanded capabilities
                 u
                    for complex procedures.
                    Example: A future surgical robot, powered by AI vision, might be able to automatically identify a specific blood vessel
                 u
                    based on learned patterns and highlight it for the surgeon, or even autonomously complete a small, intricate stitch
                    perfectly, ensuring consistent quality.
                 Rehabilitation and Assistive Robotics
                    Concept: These robots assist patients in recovering from injuries or provide support for individuals with disabilities.
                 u
                    New age systems are becoming more adaptable and personalised, using AI to understand and respond to individual
                    patient needs.
                    AI/ML Application: ML algorithms analyse patient movement patterns, physiological responses, and progress data
                 u
                    to dynamically adjust therapy intensity or provide tailored assistance. For prosthetic limbs, AI allows for more natural
                    and intuitive control by interpreting muscle signals.




                                                                                                                       29
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="32"><![CDATA[Impact: Accelerated rehabilitation, improved quality of life for individuals with mobility challenges, and personalised
              u
                  care delivery.
                  Example: An exoskeleton robot designed for stroke rehabilitation uses sensors to measure a patient’s leg strength
              u
                  and movement. An AI system then analyses this data and adjusts the level of assistance provided by the exoskeleton
                  in real-time, gradually reducing support as the patient gains strength, thereby optimising their recovery.

              Robots for Hospital Logistics and Disinfection
                  Concept: Autonomous  robots are increasingly  used  in hospitals  for mundane  but  essential  tasks  like  delivering
              u
                  medicines, linen, or food, and for automated disinfection of rooms.
                  AI/ML Application: Similar to AMRs in manufacturing, these robots use AI-powered navigation and mapping to move
              u
                  around complex hospital layouts, avoid staff and patients, and navigate elevators. ML helps them learn efficient
                  delivery routes and schedules. For disinfection robots, AI ensures comprehensive coverage of surfaces.
                  Impact: Improved  efficiency  in  hospital  operations,  reduced  workload  for human  staff, enhanced  hygiene  and
              u
                  infection control, and increased safety for staff by handling potentially contaminated materials.
                  Example: During a pandemic, a UV-C light disinfection robot autonomously patrols hospital rooms after patient
              u
                  discharge. Its AI mapping ensures every surface is exposed to the germ-killing UV light for the optimal duration,
                  reducing human exposure to contaminated areas.

                    VIDEO SESSION                                                               Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                  21 st
                                                                                                 Skills
                    Scan the QR code or visit the following link to watch the video:
                    Sensors used in Robots
                    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_8VSTA7hfXA
                    After watching the video, answer the following questions:
                    1.  How does a proximity sensor detect nearby objects without physical contact?


                    2.  What is the purpose of a tilt sensor?





              Autonomous Vehicles






























              30
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="33"><![CDATA[Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) represent one of the most visible and transformative applications of New Age Robotics.
                 These vehicles aim to navigate and operate without human intervention, from self-driving cars to delivery drones.

                 Perception and Sensor Fusion
                    Concept: AVs integrate data from a multitude of advanced sensors – cameras, Lidar, Radar, Ultrasonic sensors,
                 u
                    and GPS – to create a comprehensive and real-time understanding of their surroundings. This process is called
                    sensor fusion.
                    AI/ML Application: Deep  Learning algorithms, particularly  Convolutional  Neural Networks (CNNs)  in
                 u
                    Computer Vision, are critical for processing raw sensor data. They enable the AV to accurately detect and classify
                    objects (e.g., distinguish between a pedestrian, a cyclist, and a lamppost), understand traffic signs, and identify
                    lane markings. Sensor fusion algorithms, often based on advanced filtering techniques and ML, combine data from
                    different sensors to overcome individual sensor limitations and create a robust environmental model.
                    Impact: Enables the vehicle to ‘see’ and ‘understand’ its environment with a level of detail and consistency often
                 u
                    surpassing human capabilities, even in challenging weather conditions or low light.
                    Example: A self-driving car uses Lidar to create a precise 3D map of the road, Radar to detect the speed and
                 u
                    distance of other vehicles (even in fog), and cameras to identify traffic light colours and read signs. AI algorithms then
                    fuse all this data to form a complete and reliable picture of the driving scene.
                 Decision Making and Path Planning

                    Concept: Once the environment is perceived, the AV’s AI brain must make complex decisions in real-time about
                 u
                    driving maneuvers, speed, lane changes, and interaction with other road users. It also needs to plan the optimal path
                    to its destination.
                    AI/ML Application: Reinforcement  Learning models  are being  trained  in simulated  environments  to  learn
                 u
                    optimal  driving policies  by  experiencing  various  scenarios  and receiving  rewards for  safe and efficient  driving.
                    Predictive AI models forecast the behaviour of other vehicles and pedestrians. Advanced Path Planning algorithms
                    (often graph-based or using optimisation techniques)  calculate  the safest, most  comfortable,  and fastest  route,
                    constantly updating it based on real-time traffic and obstacles.
                    Impact: Enables highly sophisticated and adaptive driving behaviour, moving towards fully autonomous navigation,
                 u
                    aiming for increased safety and reduced traffic congestion.
                    Example: When an autonomous vehicle approaches an intersection, its AI uses predictive models to anticipate
                 u
                    whether other vehicles will  proceed  or stop.  Based  on this, and considering  factors  like  road conditions  and
                    traffic laws, its path planning algorithms decide the optimal speed and trajectory to navigate the intersection safely
                    and efficiently.

                 Human-Machine Interface (HMI) and Communication
                    Concept: For autonomous vehicles, especially semi-autonomous ones, effective communication between the vehicle
                 u
                    and its human occupants (and even pedestrians) is crucial for trust and safety.
                    AI/ML Application: Natural Language Processing (NLP) allows passengers to interact with the vehicle using voice
                 u
                    commands. AI can provide clear, timely information about the vehicle’s intentions and status. Advanced HMI designs,
                    informed by AI, ensure intuitive controls and alerts.
                    Impact: Enhanced  user experience,  increased  passenger  comfort  and trust,  and improved  safety  through clear
                 u
                    communication between the vehicle and its users.
                    Example: If a self-driving car needs to make an unusual manoeuvre or hand over control to the human driver, its NLP
                 u
                    system might verbally explain the situation clearly (e.g., “Merging left in 100 metres,” or “Driver intervention required
                    due to heavy rain”) while also displaying visual cues on a screen.



                                                                                                                       31
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="34"><![CDATA[The “New Age” of robotics is characterised by robots that are not just strong and fast, but also truly intelligent, perceptive,
              and adaptable. The continuous evolution of AI and Machine Learning will undoubtedly lead to even more groundbreaking
              applications, further blurring the lines between science fiction and reality, and fundamentally changing how we live, work,
              and move. These developments offer exciting career prospects for students passionate about technology and innovation.
              Components of Robots: System Visualisation, Design, and Creation

              Creating a robot is a complex process that moves from an abstract idea to a tangible, functioning machine. This journey
              relies  on meticulous  planning, detailed  design,  and highly precise  manufacturing  techniques.  This entire  process  is
              encapsulated by “System Visualisation, Design, and Creation,” which leverages advanced tools like Computer-Aided
              Design (CAD) and precision manufacturing.

              System Visualisation: Bringing the Idea to Life (Virtually)
              Before any physical part of a robot is built, engineers and designers need to visualise how it will look, move, and interact
              with its environment. This “system visualisation” is crucial for early-stage development and problem-solving.

              Concept Generation and Sketching
                  It begins with initial ideas, sketches, and rough layouts to define the robot’s purpose, overall structure, and how its
              u
                  various parts might fit together. This is where the functional requirements (what the robot needs to do) are translated
                  into preliminary design concepts.
                  Example: For a new medical robot designed to assist in delicate surgeries, the initial visualisation might involve
              u
                  sketching how human hands would interact with its controls and how its robotic arms would reach inside a patient’s
                  body without obstructions.

              3D Modelling and Digital Prototyping
                  Once a concept is solidified, it’s translated into a detailed three-dimensional (3D) digital model using specialised
              u
                  software. This is where Computer-Aided Design (CAD) plays a central role.
                  Role of CAD:
              u
                     Detailed Geometry: CAD software (like SolidWorks, Autodesk Inventor, Fusion 360) allows engineers to create
                     l
                     precise 3D models of every component of the robot – from the tiniest gear to the largest structural frame. They
                     can define exact dimensions, materials, and how parts will connect.
                     Assembly Modelling: Individual components are then assembled digitally in the CAD environment. This allows
                     l
                     designers to see how all parts fit together, identify potential clashes or interference, and ensure proper clearances
                     before any physical manufacturing begins.
                     Kinematic and Dynamic Simulation: CAD software often integrates with Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE)
                     l
                     tools.
                     �   Kinematic Simulation: This simulates the robot’s motion without considering forces. It helps verify if the robot
                         can reach all necessary points, if its joints have sufficient range of motion, and if it avoids self-collision.
                     �   Dynamic Simulation: This analyses the robot’s behaviour under various forces and loads (e.g., how it moves
                         when lifting a heavy object, or how vibrations might affect its stability). This helps in optimising motor sizes
                         and structural strength.
                     Virtual Testing: Instead of building expensive physical prototypes for every design iteration, engineers can test
                     l
                     their robot’s performance virtually. They can simulate tasks, check for collisions, and analyse stress points, saving
                     significant time and cost.
                  Impact: CAD enables rapid iteration of designs, comprehensive virtual testing, and precise communication among
              u
                  design teams. It allows engineers to “build” and “test” a robot thousands of times on a computer before producing
                  a single physical part.




              32
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="35"><![CDATA[Example: Before building a robotic arm for factory assembly, engineers use CAD to model its links, joints, and motors.
                 u
                    They then simulate its movements to ensure it can precisely pick up a part, avoid obstacles in the workspace, and
                    place it accurately, all within the required speed and force limits. If the simulation shows it might collide with another
                    machine, the design can be quickly adjusted without any material waste.
                 Precision Manufacturing: Bringing Digital Designs to Physical Reality

                 Once the design is perfected in the CAD environment, the next step is to physically create the robot’s components. This
                 requires precision manufacturing techniques, which ensure that parts are made to extremely tight tolerances and exact
                 specifications. The performance of a robot’s sensors, actuators, and control units is directly dependent on the accuracy
                 of their manufacturing.

                 Manufacturing of Mechanical Components (Structure and Actuators)
                    CNC Machining (Computer Numerical Control): This is a widely used method where computer-controlled machines
                 u
                    (like mills and lathes) precisely cut, drill, and shape materials (metals, plastics) according to the CAD model. It’s
                    essential for creating complex parts like gears, motor housings, and robot arm links with high accuracy.
                        Example: The intricate gears inside a robot’s joint, which allow for precise movement, are typically manufactured
                       l
                        using CNC machining to ensure minimal “backlash” (play or looseness) and smooth operation.
                    3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing): For rapid prototyping, complex geometries, or lightweight components, 3D
                 u
                    printing (using various materials like plastics, resins, or even metals) is increasingly used. It builds parts layer by layer
                    directly from the CAD model.
                        Example: A complex custom gripper for a specific object, with internal channels for vacuum, could be 3D printed,
                       l
                        allowing for designs impossible with traditional manufacturing.
                    Moulding  and  Casting: For  high-volume production  of specific  plastic  or metal  parts, moulding  (e.g., injection
                 u
                    moulding for plastic housings) or casting techniques might be used.

                 Creation of Sensors
                    Sensors are often micro-scale devices and require highly specialised manufacturing processes.
                 u
                    Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Technology: Many modern sensors (like accelerometers, gyroscopes,
                 u
                    some pressure sensors) are built using MEMS technology. This involves fabricating tiny mechanical structures on
                    silicon wafers using techniques similar to those for making computer chips (e.g., photolithography, etching).
                        Example: The tiny  components  inside  your  smartphone’s  accelerometer,  which detects  its  orientation,  are
                       l
                        manufactured using MEMS technology, allowing for incredibly small and precise sensors.
                    Optics and Lenses: For vision-based sensors (cameras, Lidar), precision optics are crucial. Lenses and mirrors are
                 u
                    manufactured with extremely fine tolerances to ensure clear and accurate image capture.
                    Material Deposition and Etching: For various sensor types, thin films of specific materials (e.g., resistive materials
                 u
                    for touch sensors, or light-sensitive materials for photo-sensors) are precisely deposited and etched onto substrates.
                    Impact of Precision: Any imperfection in sensor manufacturing can lead to inaccurate readings, causing the robot to
                 u
                    misinterpret its environment and make incorrect decisions. Precision ensures reliability and sensitivity.

                 Fabrication of Control Units (PCBs and Processors)

                 u   The robot’s ‘brain’ – its control unit – is typically a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) populated with microprocessors,
                    memory chips, and other electronic components.

                 u   PCB  Manufacturing: PCBs  are created  by  precisely  etching conductive  copper traces  onto  a non-conductive
                    substrate. Multiple layers are common for complex designs.
                 u   Component Mounting (Surface-Mount Technology - SMT): Tiny electronic components (like resistors, capacitors,
                    and the microprocessors themselves) are precisely placed and soldered onto the PCB using automated pick-and-
                    place machines. This requires extreme precision to avoid short circuits or poor connections.


                                                                                                                       33
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="36"><![CDATA[Processor Fabrication: The microprocessors at the heart of the control unit are manufactured in highly specialised
              u
                  semiconductor fabrication plants (fabs). This involves incredibly intricate processes of creating microscopic transistors
                  on silicon wafers through photolithography, doping, and layering.
                  Impact of Precision: A tiny fault in the PCB layout or component placement can render the entire control unit non-
              u
                  functional or unreliable. Precision manufacturing ensures the integrity of electrical signals and the robust operation
                  of the robot’s brain.
              Integration and Testing
              After  individual components  are  manufactured,  they  are  assembled  with  great  care.  The mechanical  parts  are  put
              together, actuators are integrated, sensors are mounted, and the control unit is connected. This is followed by rigorous
              testing, both at the component level and for the entire assembled robot, to ensure that it performs as designed, meets
              safety standards, and functions reliably in its intended environment. This often involves real-world scenario testing and
              fine-tuning of software and calibration of sensors.
              So, the journey from a conceptual idea of a robot to a functional, intelligent machine is a testament to sophisticated
              engineering processes. System visualisation through CAD modelling allows engineers to design, simulate, and refine
              every aspect in a virtual space, reducing risks and costs. Subsequently, precision manufacturing techniques transform
              these digital blueprints into physical components – be it highly accurate gears for actuators, micro-scale sensing elements
              for sensors, or complex circuit boards for control units – ensuring that the robot’s physical form is as precise and reliable
              as its intelligent software. This meticulous approach is what enables the high performance and reliability of New Age
              Robotics Systems.

                      REBOOT

                     Answer the following questions:

                     1.  Why do we call sensors the “eyes and ears” of a robot?
                     2.  Can you think of a task at home where a robot would be more efficient than a human?
                     3.  Why do you think robots are important in space exploration?

                     4.  If robots are machines, what makes them “different” from normal machines like fans or mixers?
                     5.  How do you imagine robots will change your life by 2040?




              Relating Physics & Mathematics to Robotics: The Scientific Foundations

              Robotics, at its heart, is an applied science that heavily relies on foundational principles from Physics and Mathematics.
              These disciplines provide  the language  and tools  necessary to  understand  how robots  move,  interact  with their
              environment, and make intelligent decisions. For every autonomous action a robot performs, there are complex physical
              laws and mathematical computations happening behind the scenes.

              Applying Physics Principles for Motion, Forces, and Control

              Physics is the study of matter, energy, space, and time, and it provides the fundamental laws governing how things
              move and interact. In robotics, understanding these laws is crucial for designing a robot that can move efficiently, handle
              objects, and safely interact with its surroundings.

              Motion (Kinematics and Dynamics)
                  Kinematics: This branch of physics (and mathematics) deals with the description of motion without considering the
              u
                  forces causing it. In robotics, kinematics is used to:



              34
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="37"><![CDATA[Forward Kinematics: Calculate the position and orientation of the robot’s end-effector (e.g., its gripper) given
                       l
                        the angles of its joints. Imagine a robotic arm with multiple segments and joints; if you know the angle of each
                        joint, you can determine exactly where the hand is in space.
                        Inverse Kinematics: This is  the reverse and often more  challenging problem: given a desired  position  and
                       l
                        orientation for the robot’s end-effector (where the robot’s hand needs to be), calculate the required angles for
                        each of its joints. This is essential for guiding a robot to pick up an object at a specific location.
                        Example: For a robotic arm assembling a circuit board, inverse kinematics is used to calculate the precise joint
                       l
                        angles required for the gripper to reach a tiny electronic component, pick it up, and place it accurately on the
                        board.
                    Dynamics: This branch of physics deals with the forces that cause motion. In robotics, dynamics is used to:
                 u
                        Understand how forces and torques affect a robot’s movement.
                       l
                        Calculate the required motor power to move specific loads.
                       l
                        Analyse stability (e.g., preventing a walking robot from falling).
                       l
                        Example: When a robot arm lifts a heavy object, dynamics helps engineers calculate how much torque the
                       l
                        motors at each joint need to apply to lift the object smoothly and without the arm collapsing under the weight.
                        This also helps in designing the structural strength of the robot’s links.

                 Forces and Torque (Newton’s Laws)
                    Newton’s Laws of Motion are foundational. Robots operate by applying and reacting to forces.
                 u
                    Newton's First Law (Inertia): A robot in motion tends to stay in motion, and a robot at rest tends to stay at rest,
                 u
                    unless acted upon by an external force. This is important for understanding how much force is needed to start or stop
                    a robot’s movement.
                    Newton's Second Law (F=ma): Force equals mass times acceleration. This law is fundamental for calculating the
                 u
                    forces required to accelerate or decelerate parts of the robot, or to apply a specific force to an object.
                    Newton's Third Law (Action-Reaction): For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. This is critical for
                 u
                    understanding ground reaction forces in walking robots, or how a robot’s push on an object will result in a reaction
                    force back on the robot.
                    Torque: This is the rotational equivalent of force. It’s the twisting force that causes rotation around an axis. Motors
                 u
                    generate torque to move robot joints, wheels, or propellers.
                    Example: For a quadcopter drone, the thrust force generated by its propellers (related to Newton’s Third Law) is
                 u
                    calculated using aerodynamic principles to counteract gravity and achieve lift. To rotate (yaw) or tilt (pitch/roll), the
                    drone’s control system adjusts the torque of individual motors, demonstrating how forces and torques dictate its
                    movement.
                 Control Systems (Feedback and Stability)
                    A robot’s ability to perform tasks precisely relies on sophisticated control systems, which are deeply rooted in physics
                 u
                    and mathematics.
                    Feedback Control: Robots constantly measure their current state (e.g., position, speed) using sensors and compare
                 u
                    it to their desired state. The difference (error) is used by the control system to generate commands to the actuators,
                    correcting the robot’s movement. This continuous loop is called feedback control.
                    Stability: A crucial aspect of robot control is ensuring stability. A control system must prevent oscillations or runaway
                 u
                    movements. For instance, a walking robot must maintain balance, and a drone must maintain a stable flight path
                    even in windy conditions. Physics principles of equilibrium and oscillations are directly applied here.
                    Example: Consider a robotic arm trying to hold a heavy object steady. Gravity exerts a force on the object. The robot’s
                 u
                    force sensors (physics) detect this force. The control system (mathematics/algorithms) constantly measures the
                    current position and compares it to the desired steady position. If the arm starts to sag, the control system calculates
                    the required torque (physics) for the motors to apply to correct the position, forming a continuous feedback loop to
                    maintain stability.
                                                                                                                       35
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="38"><![CDATA[Algorithms for Programming and Problem-Solving

              Every robot, no matter how simple or advanced, needs a well-structured plan to carry out its task. Before a robot moves,
              senses, or reacts, it must think logically — step by step — to decide what to do next. This logical plan is called an Algorithm.
              In the same way that humans follow a recipe to cook a dish or a set of instructions to build a model, robots also follow
              algorithms to perform actions precisely and efficiently.
              In robotics, algorithms form the core intelligence behind every robot’s behaviour — whether it is a line-following robot, an
              industrial arm assembling car parts, or a Mars Rover exploring the red planet.
              At its core, an algorithm is a logical representation of a solution. It describes how to solve a problem, not how to code it. It
              gives a clear roadmap from the starting point to the solution — something that both humans and computers can interpret.
              Definition:

              “An algorithm is a well-defined, step-by-step process designed to solve a problem or accomplish a specific task.”
              Example:
              Imagine a robot that must move forward until it detects an obstacle and then stop.
              Algorithm:
              1.  Start

              2.  Activate the ultrasonic distance sensor
              3.  Measure the distance to the nearest obstacle
              4.  If distance > 20 cm   Move Forward
              5.  If distance ≤ 20 cm   Stop
              6.  Repeat the above steps until destination is reached
              7.  End
              Here, the robot’s thinking process is defined clearly — each step is logical and can be implemented as code later.

              Importance of Algorithms in Robotics

              Algorithms are the systematic flow of robotic systems. They help a robot:
                  Understand and analyse data received from sensors
              u
                  Take logical decisions in real time
              u
                  Execute tasks efficiently and consistently
              u
                  Adapt to changes in the environment
              u
                  Perform repetitive or complex operations without human intervention
              u
              From obstacle avoidance to voice recognition, from autonomous driving to robotic surgery — every robotic function starts
              with an algorithm.

              Characteristics of a Good Algorithm

              A good algorithm must possess the following features:
              1.  Finiteness: It should have a definite beginning and an end. The steps must be limited in number.
              2.  Definiteness: Each step should be precisely and unambiguously defined.
              3.   Input:  It  must  clearly  state  the  data  required  to  start  (for example,  sensor  readings,  distance  values, colour
                  input, etc.).
              4.  Output: The result of processing the input — for example, motor movement, LED status, or an alert message.
              5.  Effectiveness: The algorithm’s instructions should be simple, logical, and executable by the robot’s controller.
              6.  Generalization: It should be applicable to similar problems, not just a single situation.




              36
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="39"><![CDATA[Structure of an Algorithm
                 Most algorithms follow a similar logical structure:

                                 Step                                       Explanation
                       Input                    Gather data from sensors or external sources.

                       Processing               Apply logic, calculations, or conditions.
                       Decision-making          Use comparisons or conditional statements to determine the next step.
                       Output/Action            Send signals to actuators (motors, LEDs, arms, etc.) or display the result.
                       End/Repeat               Stop or repeat the loop as needed.
                 Example: Temperature-Controlled Fan
                 1.  Start
                 2.  Read temperature from the DHT11 sensor
                 3.  If temperature > 30°C   Switch on fan

                 4.  If temperature ≤ 30°C   Switch off fan
                 5.  Repeat
                 6.  End
                 This simple example demonstrates how input (temperature) leads to logical decision-making and output (fan on/off).

                 Flowchart: The Visual Form of an Algorithm
                 An algorithm can be represented textually or visually. The visual representation is called a Flowchart.

                 A flowchart uses specific symbols to represent different types of instructions or decisions, helping students visualize the
                 logic easily.

                     Symbol           Purpose       Example                              Start
                  Oval            Start or End      Start / Stop

                  Parallelogram   Input or Output   Read sensor value
                  Rectangle       Process or Action  Move forward
                                                                                         Read
                  Diamond         Decision          Is obstacle detected?               A, B, C
                                                    Indicates direction of
                  Arrow           Flow of control
                                                    sequence
                                                                                 No               Yes
                                                                                          Is
                                                                                         A > B



                                                                      Yes             No     No              Yes
                                                                             Is                        Is
                                                                            B > C                    A > C





                                                               Print "B is the        Print "C is the       Print "A is the
                                                              largest number"       largest number"        largest number"






                                                                                         Stop

                                                                                                                       37
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="40"><![CDATA[Search Engine
                                  Start                                                       Page
                                                         home page
                                                                                           Interaction


                                                                                             Decision
                                                      Use the search
                                           Yes                             No
                                                         engine?
                                                                                              Stop




                                        Type in a search          Ask for recommendations
                                         (i.e. agency)



                                       Search engine             Click the link to an agency's
                                        results page                       site



                                                                                        Agency's home
                                     Look through search                                    page
                                          results
                                                                          Yes



                                                         Did you                      Does it meet your
                                                       find a content                      needs?
                                                         agency?

                                              No


                                                         Did you                            Yes
                                                      want to search       No
                                                         again?


                                               Yes                        No                Stop


              Flowcharts simplify  complex  logic  and are useful for planning before  actual  coding.  They help in debugging  and
              collaborative discussions between students and teachers.

              Algorithm Design in Robotics
              Algorithm design in robotics typically follows three major stages:
              1.   Problem  identification:  Define what the  robot  must  accomplish.  Example:  “The robot  must  follow a black  line
                  on a white surface.”

              2.  Logical structuring: Break the problem into small, clear steps (sense   decide   act).
              3.  Optimization and  testing:  Check  for efficiency.  A  good  algorithm  uses  fewer steps  and  ensures  accuracy
                  and stability.
              Designing  an algorithm  trains students  in computational  thinking  — breaking  problems  into  manageable  parts  and
              designing logical solutions.




              38
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="41"><![CDATA[Real-World Use of Algorithms in Robotics
                 Algorithms are used in almost every modern robotic system:

                       Application Area                Algorithm Used            Purpose
                  Autonomous Cars            Pathfinding (A*)                    Safely navigate roads

                  Industrial Robots          Kinematic Algorithms                Control robotic arm movement
                                             PID  (Proportional-Integral-Derivative)
                  Drones                                                         Maintain balance and orientation
                                             Control Algorithm
                  Search & Rescue Robots     Object Detection Algorithm          Identify survivors or obstacles
                  AI-Powered Robots          Machine Learning Algorithms         Learn from data and improve performance
                 Learning to Think Like a Robot
                 When students learn to create algorithms, they are not just learning to write code — they are learning to think logically
                 and systematically.
                 A good roboticist doesn’t jump directly to coding. They first:
                    Observe the problem carefully
                 u
                    Write down the logical sequence of actions
                 u
                    Test the flow using paper or simulation
                 u
                    Finally, convert it into code
                 u
                 This approach nurtures problem-solving skills, clarity of thought, and technical discipline — all key traits of 21st-century
                 learners.
                     REBOOT


                    Activities for Students
                    Write an algorithm for a robot that can pick and place three coloured blocks in specific boxes (red    Box A,
                    blue   Box B, green   Box C).
                    1.   Create a flowchart for a smart light system that turns ON when motion is detected and OFF after 30 seconds
                        of inactivity.
                    2.   Find out what pathfinding algorithms are used by robots in warehouses (e.g., Amazon’s Kiva Robots) and
                        explain how they navigate efficiently.
                    3.   Use Tinkercad Circuits or Arduino IDE to simulate a line-following robot and observe how algorithmic logic
                        converts into movement.



                 Matrix Operations: Essential for Transformations and Coordinate Systems

                 Mathematics, particularly linear algebra (which involves matrices and vectors), provides the language for describing
                 position, orientation, and movement in 3D space.
                 Coordinate Systems

                    A robot operates within various coordinate systems:
                 u
                        Robot Base Frame: The origin of the robot (e.g., the base of a robotic arm).
                       l
                        Joint Frames: A coordinate system for each joint.
                       l
                        End-Effector Frame: A coordinate system at the robot’s tool or gripper.
                       l
                        World Frame: A global coordinate system representing the environment.
                       l
                    Example: Imagine a robot picking up a block. The block’s position is known in the world frame. The robot’s arm base
                 u
                    is in its own base frame. To grab the block, the robot needs to know the block’s position relative to its own arm.
                                                                                                                       39
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="42"><![CDATA[Transformations (Rotations and Translations)
                  Robots  constantly  need  to  change  their  position  and orientation  in space.  Transformations are mathematical
              u
                  operations that describe these changes.
                  Translation: Moving an object from one point to another without changing its orientation (just shifting its position).
              u
                  This can be represented by adding a vector.
                  Rotation: Changing the orientation of an object around an axis. This is more complex and typically represented by a
              u
                  rotation matrix.
                  Homogeneous Transformation Matrices: These are special 4x4 matrices that combine both rotation and translation
              u
                  into a single mathematical operation. They are exceptionally powerful for describing the position and orientation of
                  one coordinate system relative to another.
                  Applications:
              u
                     Kinematics: Calculating the position and orientation of each link and the end-effector of a robotic arm relative
                     l
                     to its base.
                     Navigation: Transforming sensor readings from the robot’s internal frame to a global map frame.
                     l
                     Object Manipulation: Determining the precise movements needed to grasp an object, which involves transforming
                     l
                     the object’s position into the robot’s gripper frame.
                  Example: Consider a robotic arm with several joints. To determine the exact location of its gripper, we start from
              u
                  the robot’s base. We apply a matrix operation (a homogeneous transformation matrix) for the first joint’s position
                  and orientation relative to the base. Then, we multiply that by another matrix for the second joint’s position and
                  orientation relative to the first, and so on, until we reach the gripper. This chain of matrix multiplications accurately
                  describes the gripper’s final position and orientation in the robot’s base frame.

              Vectors and Vector Spaces: Direction, Force, and Position in Space
              Vectors are fundamental mathematical objects that represent quantities having both magnitude (size) and direction.
              Vector spaces provide the framework for working with these quantities.
              Representing Position and Direction

                  Position Vectors: A vector can point from an origin to a specific point in space, representing its position (e.g., the
              u
                  position of a sensor, an object, or a robot’s joint).
                  Direction Vectors: Vectors are used to represent the direction of movement (e.g., velocity), the orientation of an
              u
                  object (e.g., which way a camera is pointing), or the normal to a surface.
                  Example: A self-driving car needs to know its current position (using a vector from the map’s origin) and its direction
              u
                  of travel (using a vector representing its heading).
              Representing Forces and Velocities
                  Force Vectors: Forces (like gravity, friction, motor thrust) are vector quantities. Their magnitude indicates how strong
              u
                  the force is, and their direction indicates where they are acting.
                  Velocity  Vectors: A robot’s  speed  and direction  of movement  are represented  by velocity  vectors. Similarly,
              u
                  acceleration is also a vector.
                  Vector Addition/Subtraction: Used to combine multiple forces acting on a robot or to calculate relative velocities.
              u
                  Dot Product: Used to calculate work done by a force, or to find the angle between two vectors (useful for checking if
              u
                  two lines are perpendicular).
                  Cross Product: Used to calculate torque or the normal vector to a surface (useful for determining orientation in 3D).
              u
                  Example: A drone needs to calculate the resultant force vector from its four propellers to determine its overall
              u
                  thrust and direction of flight. To ascend, the upward force vector must be greater than the downward force vector
                  due to gravity.


              40
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="43"><![CDATA[Multi-Dimensional Tasks and Control
                    Robots often operate in 3D space (x, y, z coordinates) and can also have multiple degrees of freedom (e.g., rotation
                 u
                    around x, y, and z axes). Vectors and vector spaces naturally handle these multi-dimensional aspects.
                    State Space: The entire set of possible positions and velocities a robot can be in is often represented as a multi-
                 u
                    dimensional “state space,” where each dimension corresponds to a degree of freedom. Control algorithms navigate
                    this state space using vector mathematics.
                    Example: In a robotic painting application, the robot needs to control its end-effector’s position (3 dimensions) and
                 u
                    its orientation (3 dimensions) to precisely apply paint. Each of these parameters is managed using vectors, and the
                    overall task involves operating within a 6-dimensional vector space.
                 In essence, Physics provides the underlying laws that dictate how robots move and interact physically, while Mathematics,
                 particularly  linear algebra  with  its  vectors  and  matrices,  provides  the  precise  framework and  computational  tools
                 to  model, control, and program these  complex  physical  interactions.  Without  a strong grasp of these  fundamental
                 scientific and mathematical principles, designing and operating New Age Robotics Systems would simply be impossible.
                 This interdisciplinary approach is what makes robotics such a challenging and rewarding field of study.
                 Project Management in Robotics: Orchestrating Innovation

                 Imagine designing and building a highly advanced robot, like a surgical assistant or a self-driving car. It involves hundreds,
                 if not thousands, of complex parts, intricate software, and a team of experts from various fields – mechanical engineers,
                 electrical engineers, software developers, AI specialists, and more. Without proper organisation and guidance, such a
                 project could easily go off track, exceed its budget, or fail to meet its objectives. This is where Project Management
                 becomes indispensable.
                 Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project
                 requirements. In the context of robotics, it’s about systematically guiding the creation and deployment of robotic systems
                 from idea to completion. It ensures that innovative ideas are not just brilliant concepts but are transformed into functional,
                 reliable, and commercially viable solutions.
                 Let’s explore the core phases of project management:

                 Planning: Laying the Foundation for Success

                 The planning phase is arguably the most critical. It’s where the entire roadmap for the robotic project is meticulously
                 drawn out. Just like preparing for your board exams, you need a solid study plan to achieve your goals.

                 Defining Project Goals and Scope
                    What are we trying to achieve? Clearly state the specific objectives of the robotic system. For instance, “Develop an
                 u
                    autonomous warehouse robot that can transport goods weighing up to 50 kg, navigate aisles of 2 meters width, and
                    operate for 12 hours on a single charge.”
                    What are its functionalities? Detail what the robot will be able to do (e.g., sense obstacles, pick up specific items,
                 u
                    communicate with a central system).
                    What are the limitations? Define what the robot will not do or the boundaries of the project (e.g., “It will not operate
                 u
                    outdoors,” “It will not handle hazardous materials”).
                    Impact: A clear scope prevents “scope creep” – where new features are constantly added, delaying the project and
                 u
                    increasing costs.

                 Resource Allocation
                    Human  Resources: Identifying the  teams  and  individuals  required  (e.g., mechanical  design  team,  software
                 u
                    development team, sensor specialists, AI researchers).
                    Financial Resources (Budget): Estimating and allocating funds for components, labour, software licenses, testing,
                 u
                    and potential contingencies.
                    Material Resources: Identifying  and  sourcing  necessary  raw materials,  components  (motors,  sensors,
                 u
                    microcontrollers), and testing equipment.

                                                                                                                        41
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="44"><![CDATA[Example: For a  project  developing  a  humanoid  service  robot,  the  planning  phase  would  determine  how many
              u
                  mechanical engineers are needed for the body, how many AI experts for the brain, the cost of advanced force sensors,
                  and the budget for prototyping materials.
              Timeline and Scheduling
                  Breaking down the entire project into smaller, manageable tasks.
              u
                  Estimating the time required for each task (e.g., “3 weeks for CAD design of the arm,” “2 months for AI algorithm
              u
                  development,” “1 month for sensor integration”).
                  Creating a detailed schedule, often using tools like Gantt charts, to show dependencies between tasks (e.g., you can’t
              u
                  build the control unit until the PCB design is finalised).
                  Impact: A well-defined timeline helps track progress and identify potential delays early on.
              u
              Risk Management
                  Identifying  potential  problems or challenges that  could  arise  during  the  project  (e.g., a critical  component  is
              u
                  unavailable, the AI algorithm doesn’t perform as expected, budget overruns, safety issues).
                  Developing contingency plans to mitigate these risks.
              u
                  Example: A  risk  identified  for an  autonomous  delivery  drone  project  might  be  “unexpected  adverse  weather
              u
                  conditions.”  The  mitigation  plan could  include  designing  a  more  robust  weather-resistant  shell or developing
                  algorithms for safe emergency landings.
              Quality Standards
              Defining the criteria for success and performance (e.g., “The robotic arm must achieve a positioning accuracy of ± 0.1
              mm,” “The autonomous vehicle must detect pedestrians with 99% accuracy,” “The robot must operate without failure for
              at least 1000 hours”).
              These standards guide testing and ensure the final product meets expectations.

              Execution: Bringing the Plan to Life

              This is the phase where the actual work of building the robot takes place, guided by the meticulously laid-out plan. It’s
              the “doing” part.
              Task Assignment and Team Coordination

              u   Assigning specific tasks to individual team members or sub-teams.
                  Ensuring seamless  communication  and collaboration  between  different disciplines  (e.g., mechanical  engineers
              u
                  sharing CAD models with manufacturing, software developers testing code on new hardware).
                  Example: The mechanical team designs the chassis, the electrical team designs the power system, and the software
              team starts writing the navigation code, all working in parallel but coordinating regularly.
              Component Procurement and Manufacturing

                  Purchasing raw materials and off-the-shelf components (e.g., microcontrollers, standard sensors).
              u
                  Manufacturing custom parts using techniques like CNC machining, 3D printing, and PCB fabrication, as discussed
              u
                  earlier.
                  Impact: Efficient procurement ensures parts are available when needed, preventing costly delays.
              u
              Assembly and Integration
                  Physically assembling the robot’s mechanical structure.
              u
                  Integrating electrical components, sensors, and actuators.
              u
                  Loading and configuring the control software and AI algorithms onto the robot’s processing unit. This is often the most
              u
                  challenging part, as different systems need to work together seamlessly.
                  Example: The robot’s frame is assembled, motors are bolted in, sensors are wired up, and finally, the central control
              u
                  board is installed and connected to everything.
              42
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="45"><![CDATA[Testing and Debugging
                    Rigorous testing at every stage – individual components, sub-assemblies, and the complete robot.
                 u
                    Identifying and fixing bugs in the software, correcting mechanical misalignments, and calibrating sensors.
                 u
                    Impact: Thorough testing is crucial for ensuring the robot’s reliability, safety, and performance before deployment.
                 u
                 Monitoring and Control: Staying on Track
                 Throughout the execution phase, the project manager continuously monitors progress, identifies deviations from the
                 plan, and takes corrective actions to keep the project on course. This is like a teacher constantly assessing students’
                 progress and providing guidance.

                 Progress Tracking
                    Regularly checking if tasks are being completed on time according to the schedule.
                 u
                    Using Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) to track progress (e.g., percentage of code complete, number of prototypes
                 u
                    built, testing success rate).
                    Example: Weekly meetings are held where each team reports on their progress against the scheduled milestones.
                 u
                 Budget Monitoring
                    Tracking actual expenditures against the allocated budget.
                 u
                    Identifying any cost overruns and finding ways to bring them back in line.
                 u
                    Impact: Prevents the project from running out of funds before completion.
                 u
                 Quality Assurance
                    Continuously  verifying  that  the robot’s  performance meets  the defined  quality  standards  through testing  and
                 u
                    inspection.
                    Implementing processes to ensure consistent quality throughout production.
                 u
                    Example: After each batch of robotic components is manufactured, a quality control team inspects them for defects
                 u
                    or deviations from specifications.
                 Risk Response and Problem Solving
                    When  unexpected  problems  arise  (e.g., a  critical  part  supplier  goes  out  of business,  a  new safety  regulation  is
                 u
                    introduced), the project manager leads the team in finding solutions and adjusting the plan.
                    This often involves adapting to new information and making informed decisions under pressure.
                 u
                    Impact: Agile problem-solving prevents major setbacks and keeps the project moving forward.
                 u
                 Communication and Reporting
                    Regularly updating stakeholders (clients, investors, senior management) on project status, challenges, and successes.
                 u
                    Ensuring clear communication within the project team to resolve issues and maintain alignment.
                 u
                 Project Closure

                 Once the robot  is  successfully developed,  deployed,  and meets  all its  objectives,  the  project  formally concludes.
                 This involves final documentation,  handover to  operations teams,  and  a  review of lessons  learned  to  improve
                 future projects.

                 In essence, Project Management is the overarching framework that brings together all the highly specialised technical
                 aspects of robotics. It transforms a brilliant technological vision into a tangible, successful, and impactful robotic system
                 by  ensuring meticulous  planning, efficient  execution,  continuous  monitoring,  and  effective  problem-solving,  thereby
                 aligning with the systematic and outcome-oriented approach emphasised in modern education.







                                                                                                                       43
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="46"><![CDATA[ROBOT DYNAMICS

                    The term “robot” comes from the Czech word robota meaning forced labor.
                    Robotics is a multidisciplinary field involving mechanics, electronics, and computing.
                    Robots differ from ordinary machines because they can be programmed and automated.
                    Major robot types: manipulators, mobile robots, humanoids, social robots, and space robots.

                    Unimate was the first industrial robot, introduced in automobile factories.
                    Sensors give robots the ability to sense their environment.
                    Actuators are like “muscles” that enable robots to move.
                    Controllers act like the “brain” by processing input and sending output signals.

                    Robots are widely used in industries, healthcare, defense, space, and disaster response.
                    Robotics is a cornerstone of the future workforce and technological innovation.







                 RESEARCH ACTIVITY                                                             21 st
                                                                                              Century   #Experiential Learning
                These three activities mix theory (history + sensors) with practical application   Skills
                (virtual robot building)—making the learning process balanced, fun, and inquiry-driven.
                1.  Exploring Robot "Senses"

                    l  Task: Pick two robots you’ve seen (it could be a vacuum cleaner robot, a drone, or even a robot shown
                       online like Boston Dynamics’ Spot). Research what sensors they use (camera, ultrasonic, Lidar, tactile,
                       etc.) and explain how these sensors help them “see” or “feel.”
                    l  Output: Create a comparison chart showing Robot A vs Robot B with their sensors, functions, and
                       real-world applications.

                    l   Learning Outcome: Understand the connection between human senses and robotic sensors.
                2.  Mini-History of Robotics Timeline
                    l  Task: Research 5 major milestones in robotics history (e.g., automatons of ancient Greece, Unimate, Mars
                       Rover, Da Vinci Surgical System, Humanoid Robots like Sophia).
                    l   Output: Prepare a short-illustrated timeline (hand-drawn or digital) with dates, images, and short notes.
                    l  Learning Outcome: Develop perspective on how robotics evolved from simple machines to AI-driven
                       systems.
                3.  Build Your Own Virtual Robot

                    l  Task: Use a free simulator (like Tinkercad Circuits or VEXcode VR) to design a simple robot or robotic
                       arm. Program it to perform a basic task like moving forward, turning, or picking an object.

                    l  Output: Take screenshots or a short screen-recording of your robot in action with a brief written
                       explanation.
                    l  Learning Outcome: Experience hands-on how programming, sensing, and actuating come
                       together to make a robot functional.








              44
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="47"><![CDATA[AT A GLANCE
                        A robot is a programmable machine designed to carry out specific tasks, often with a degree of autonomy.
                        The true birth of modern robotics began in the mid-20th century with significant milestones like Early Industrial
                        Robots (1960s), Advancements in Computing (1970s-1980s), Rise of Artificial Intelligence (1990s-Present).

                        To understand how a robot works, it’s helpful to break it down into its main functional parts, much like
                        understanding the different systems in the human body which includes Mechanical Structure (The Body) and
                        Control System (The Brain).

                        Sensors are electronic devices that detect and measure physical quantities or events in the environment and
                        convert them into electrical signals that the robot’s control system can understand.

                        An Autonomous Robot is a robot that can operate entirely on its own, without continuous human intervention,
                        once it has been given a task or a general goal whereas a Semi-autonomous Robot is a robot that performs
                        tasks with a degree of independence but still requires human oversight, input, or intervention for certain
                        decisions, complex situations, or safety protocols.

                        As robots become more sophisticated and integrated into our society, it becomes imperative to consider the
                        broader implications and future directions of this field.

                        The integration of advanced Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) has propelled robotics into
                        a “new age,” moving beyond simple automation to create highly intelligent, adaptable, and collaborative
                        systems.

                        The main components of Robots are System Visualisation, Design, and Creation.
                        Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet
                        the project requirements.












                                                               EXERCISE




                                                                                                    Solved Questions

                                                  SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                   QUIZ
                 A.  Tick (✓) the correct option.
                    1.  The term "robot" was first introduced in:
                         i.  1921 in a play called R.U.R.                ii.  1956 in a laboratory experiment
                        iii.  1980 by NASA                              iv.  1945 during WWII

                    2.  A robot that mimics human arm movements is called:
                         i.  Drone                                       ii.  Manipulator

                        iii.  Sensor                                    iv.  Actuator

                                                                                                                       45
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="48"><![CDATA[3.  Which one is not an essential component of a robot?
                       i.  Mechanical system                           ii.  Electrical system

                      iii.  Computing system                          iv.  Human nervous system
                  4.  The first industrial robot “Unimate” was used in:
                       i.  Automobile manufacturing                    ii.  Textile industry

                      iii.  Aerospace engineering                     iv.  Agricultural farming
                  5.  Which of these best describes robotics?
                       i.  Study of planets

                      ii.  Integration of mechanics, electronics, and computing
                      iii.  A branch of psychology

                      iv.  Purely mechanical engineering
                  6.  Robots are primarily designed to:
                       i.  Replace electricity                         ii.  Perform tasks automatically

                      iii.  Eliminate computers                       iv.  Control human beings
                  7.  Which sense of humans does a camera in a robot replicate?

                       i.  Hearing                                     ii.  Touch
                      iii.  Sight                                     iv.  Smell
                  8.  Robotics is considered a:

                       i.  Single-discipline field                     ii.  Multi-disciplinary field
                      iii.  Non-technical area                        iv.  Part of history only

                  9.  The robot that explores Mars is an example of:
                       i.  Mobile robot                                ii.  Humanoid robot
                      iii.  Industrial manipulator                    iv.  Social robot

                  10.  Robots controlled from a distance are called:
                       i.  Autonomous robots                           ii.  Semi-autonomous robots
                      iii.  Remote-controlled robots                  iv.  Hybrid robots

              B.  Fill in the blanks.
                  1.  The word “robot” originated from the Czech word “           ,” meaning forced labour.

                  2.  A manipulator is a robotic system that resembles a human            in structure and function.
                  3.  The branch of robotics that studies robot “movement without forces” is called       .
                  4.  Robots used for space exploration are commonly referred to as           robots.
                  5.  The first industrial robot was named           .

                  6.  Robots sense their environment using devices called          .
                  7.  A robot’s “muscles” that enable movement are called            .
                  8.  In robotics,              systems act like the brain, processing information and making decisions.
                  9.  Robots that interact with humans socially are often called         robots.
                  10.  Robotics combines mechanics, electronics, and           .



              46
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="49"><![CDATA[C.  State whether these statements are true or false.
                    1.  The concept of robots was first described only in the 20th century.
                    2.  Robotics is an interdisciplinary field.

                    3.  Robots can never work in dangerous or hazardous environments.
                    4.  The Unimate robot was designed to work in automobile factories.
                    5.  All robots are humanoid in shape and design.

                 D.  Match the following:
                    1.  Manipulator                              a.  Explores planets
                    2.  Mobile Robot                             b.  Social interaction
                    3.  Humanoid Robot                           c.  Performs tasks like welding
                    4.  Space Robot                              d.  Moves on wheels or legs
                    5.  Social Robot                             e.  Looks and acts like humans


                                                  SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)

                 A.  Short answer type questions.
                    1.  Define a Robot.
                        Ans.  RIA defines a robot as a—programmable, multifunction manipulator designed to Move materials, parts,
                             tools or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of the variety of tasks||.
                    2.  Explain the types of rotary joint notations.
                        Ans.  l  Rotational joint (type R)
                             l  Twisting joint (type T)
                             l  Revolving joint (type V)
                    3.  What is meant by workspace?
                        Ans.  The space in which the end point of the robot arm is capable of operating is called as workspace in other
                             words reach ability of robot arm is known as workspace.
                    4.  What is meant by accuracy of robot?
                        Ans.  The robot‘s ability to reach a reference point within the robot‘s full work volume is known as accuracy
                             of robot.
                    5.  What are the benefits of industrial robots?
                        Ans.  l  Increased Productivity
                             l  Significant Savings
                             l  Improved Quality
                             l  Better Safety
                             l  Competitive Edge
                    6.  What is repeatability of robot?

                        Ans.  Repeatability refers to robot’s ability to return to the programmed point when it is commanded to do so.
                    7.  Define the term work envelop?
                        Ans.  The work envelop is described by the surface of the workspace.
                    8.  What is work volume?
                        Ans.  The volume of the space swept by the robot arm is called work volume.
                    9.  What is meant by quality of robot?
                        Ans.  A Robot is said to be high quality when the precision and accuracy is more.

                                                                                                                       47
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="50"><![CDATA[10.  What is meant by robot anatomy?
                     Ans.  Study of structure of robot is called robot anatomy. Manipulator is constructed of a series of joints and
                     links. A joint provides relative motion between the input link and the output link.

              B.  Long answer type questions.
                  1.  What are the three degrees of freedom associated with the arm and body motion?
                     Ans.  l  Right (or) left movement (X-axis motion)
                           l  In and out movement (Y-axis motion)
                           l  Vertical movement (Z-axis motion)
                  2.  Define an Industrial Robot.
                     Ans.  An industrial  robot  is an automatically controlled, reprogrammable,  multipurpose  manipulator
                           programmable in three or more axes. A programmable mechanical device that is used in place of a
                           person to perform dangerous or repetitive tasks with a high degree of accuracy.
                  3.  Define payload capacity of Robot?
                     Ans.  The maximum load which can be carried by the manipulator at low or normal speed.
                  4.  Define base and tool Coordinate system.
                     Ans.  A tool coordinates definition system capable of easily obtaining a transformation matrix for defining a tool
                           coordinates system of a robot. The tool coordinates system at the 0° position of the robot is rotated around
                           each axis so that the tool coordinates system becomes parallel to a base coordinates system.
                  5.  Name the important specifications of an industrial robot.
                     Ans.  l  Accuracy            l  Repeatability       l  Degree of Freedom
                           l  Resolution          l  Envelope

                  6.  What are the four basic robot configurations available commercially?
                     Ans.  l  Cartesian coordinate system
                           l  Cylindrical coordinate system
                           l  Polar or spherical coordinate system
                           l  Revolute coordinate system
                  7.  What is meant by pitch, yaw and roll?
                     Ans.  Pitch is rotation around the X axis, yaw is around the Y axis, and roll is around the Z axis. Yaw is side to side
                           swinging around an axis. Pitch is up and down movement about an axis and roll is rotatory motion about
                           an axis.
                  8.  List out the robot major components?
                     Ans.  1.  Robot arm          2.  End of arm         3.  Power source
                           4.  Controller         5.  Sensor             6.  Actuator
                  9.  What is an end effector? Give examples?
                     Ans.  It is a device that is attached to the end of the wrist arm to perform specific task. e.g. Tools, Welding
                           equipment, End of arm tooling.
                  10.  What is meant by workspace and work volume?
                     Ans.  The space in which the end point of the robot arm is capable of operating (or) the reach Ability of robot
                           arm is known as workspace. The volume of the space swept by the robot arm is called work volume.

                                                                                                    21 st
              C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                             Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                    Skills
                  1.   Imagine your school decides to use a robot for library management. What type of robot would you design, and
                     what features (sensors, actuators, computing system) would it need?


              48
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="51"><![CDATA[Ans.  For a library robot, suggested features:
                             l  Sensors: Barcode/RFID readers, cameras.
                             l  Actuators: Wheels for movement, robotic arm for picking/placing books.
                             l  Computing: AI for catalog search and navigation.
                                   Type: A mobile service robot with manipulator.
                    2.   A manufacturing unit wants to reduce workplace accidents. Suggest how robotics could be applied in this
                        scenario, and explain which type of robots would be best suited.
                        Ans.  In a manufacturing unit, robots can perform:
                             l  Hazardous tasks (like welding or handling toxic materials).
                             l  Heavy lifting (reducing human strain).
                             l  Repetitive work with high precision.
                                   Best suited robots: Industrial manipulators and autonomous mobile robots






                                                                                                 Unsolved Questions
                                                  SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                   QUIZ
                 A.  Tick (✓) the correct option.
                    1.  The play R.U.R. introduced the word “robot” in which language?
                         i.  French                                      ii.  German

                        iii.  Czech                                     iv.  Russian
                    2.  The term robota means:
                         i.  Innovation                                  ii.  Forced labour

                        iii.  Automatic                                 iv.  Worker
                    3.  Which category does a self-driving car belong to?

                         i.  Industrial manipulator                      ii.  Humanoid
                        iii.  Mobile robot                              iv.  Social robot
                    4.  Robots designed to resemble human beings physically and functionally are:

                         i.  Social robots                               ii.  Humanoids
                        iii.  Manipulators                              iv.  Space robots

                    5.  Which of the following is not a real application of robots?
                         i.  Welding in factories                        ii.  Assisting in surgeries
                        iii.  Producing electricity                     iv.  Exploring Mars

                    6.  A robot’s computing system can best be compared to:
                         i.  Human bones                                 ii.  Human muscles
                        iii.  Human brain                               iv.  Human heart

                    7.  The first industrial robot was used in:
                         i.  Textile mills                               ii.  Automobile plants
                        iii.  Chemical laboratories                     iv.  Agricultural fields



                                                                                                                       49
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="52"><![CDATA[8.  Which of the following is a semi-autonomous robot?
                       i.  Remote-controlled toy car

                      ii.  Drone that can be pre-programmed and also remotely guided
                      iii.  Washing machine timer

                      iv.  Robotic vacuum cleaner with no sensors
                  9.  Robots designed for companionship or customer assistance are:
                       i.  Exploration robots                          ii.  Social robots

                      iii.  Industrial manipulators                   iv.  Agricultural robots
                  10.  The core difference between a simple machine and a robot is:
                       i.  Robots require more power

                      ii.  Robots can be programmed and automated
                      iii.  Machines are always bigger

                      iv.  Robots cannot work continuously

              B.  Fill in the blanks.
                  1.  The word “robot” was first used in the play         .
                  2.  The earliest industrial robot was called        .

                  3.  Robots that operate without human intervention are called          robots.
                  4.  The physical part of a robot that performs tasks like welding or gripping is the   .

                  5.  Sensors act as the             organs of a robot.
                  6.  A robot’s ability to function in hazardous environments ensures human        .
                  7.  Robots that interact socially are often equipped with         recognition systems.

                  8.  A Mars Rover is an example of a             robot.
                  9.  The first industrial robots were mainly used in the        industry.
                  10.  Robotics as a field integrates mechanics, electronics, and      .

              C.  State whether these statements are true or false.
                  1.  Robots are always humanoid in form.

                  2.  Social robots are designed for interaction with humans.
                  3.  A manipulator is a type of robot used in space exploration.

                  4.  Robots differ from machines because they can be programmed to make decisions.
                  5.  Robots have no role in disaster management.

              D.  Match the following:
                  1.  Humanoid Robot                            a.  Automobile factory
                  2.  Unimate                                   b.  Companion and interaction

                  3.  Social Robot                              c.  Resembles human form
                  4.  Mobile Robot                              d.  Explores terrain independently
                  5.  Space Robot                               e.  Mars Rover



              50
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="53"><![CDATA[SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)

                 A.  Short answer type questions.
                    1.  Explain why robotics is called an interdisciplinary field.
                    2.  What role do sensors play in distinguishing robots from ordinary machines?

                    3.  How did the introduction of Unimate revolutionise industry?
                    4.  Differentiate between autonomous and remote-controlled robots with one example each.
                    5.  Why is the term “robot” historically linked to the idea of forced labour?

                 B.  Long answer type questions.
                    1.  Trace the evolution of robotics from the origin of the term to its industrial applications.

                    2.  Discuss the major types of robots (manipulator, mobile, humanoid, social, space) with examples.
                    3.  Explain in detail why robotics is essential in hazardous environments, giving at least three examples.



                                                                                                       21 st
                 C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                            Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                      Skills
                    1.   Your city plans to use robots for cleaning public spaces. Which type of robots would you recommend and why?
                        Include details of sensors and actuators required.
                    2.   Imagine designing a robot for space exploration. Outline the key features it must have to survive and perform
                        tasks effectively.





                                                              ROBOT MIMICRY

                  Pair up with a classmate.

                  One plays the role of the “Controller” and gives step-by-step commands (e.g., “move forward 2 steps, turn left, pick
                  the book”).

                  The other plays the “Robot” and must follow the commands exactly as spoken, without guessing.
                  If the “Controller” forgets a step, the “Robot” cannot complete the task.Lesson: Robots cannot “guess”; they only
                  execute what is programmed.





                                                                                                     21 st
                                                                                                    Century   #Digital Literacy
                                  Surgical robots like the Da Vinci system help doctors perform precise  Skills
                                  procedures. However, these robots require human supervision. What steps can be taken to ensure
                     deep         that the robot does not make mistakes, and who should be held accountable if a surgical robot fails
                   thinking       during an operation?












                                                                                                                       51
                                                                                    Introduction to Robots: What Exactly are They?]]></page><page Index="54"><![CDATA[21 st
                 LAB ACTIVITY                                                     Century   #Coding & Computational Thinking
                                                                                   Skills
                    Lab Activity: �Build a Virtual Line-Following Robot�
                    l   Tools: Arduino IDE (with simulator like Tinkercad Circuits or VEXcode VR).

                    l   Task: Program a virtual robot with two IR sensors to detect a black line on a white track and follow it.
                    l   Steps:
                       1.  Open Tinkercad and create a simple robot circuit with Arduino + 2 IR sensors + 2 DC motors.
                       2.   Write  a  simple  “if-else” code:  if  left  sensor  detects  black    turn left, else  if right  sensor  detects
                           black   turn right, else go straight.

                       3.  Run the simulation to test.
                       Outcome: Students understand the difference between machines and robots by programming autonomous
                    l
                       decision-making.












































                   Answers
                Exercise (Solved)
                A.  1. i.   2. ii.   3. iv.   4. i.   5. ii.   6. ii.   7. iii.   8. ii.   9. i.   10. iii.
                B.  1. Robota           2. Arm          3. Kinematics    4. Space
                    5. Unimate          6. Sensors      7. Actuators     8. Computing
                    9. Humanoid         10. Computing
                C.  1. False            2. True         3. False         4. True
                    5. False
                D.  1. c.   2. d.   3. e.   4. a.   5. b.

              52
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="55"><![CDATA[2













                                                                                     LEARNING OBJECTIVES

                                                                                     •  Frames and Reference Frames: The
                                                                                        Foundation of Robot Positioning
                                                                                     •  Degrees of Freedom: From Robotic Motion
                                                                                        to 3D Design
                                                                                     •  Planar Mechanisms: Motion in
                                                                                        Two-Dimensions
                                                                                     •  Spatial Mechanisms: Three-Dimensional
                                                                                        Motion in Action
                                                                                     •  Robot Kinematics: The Geometry of Motion
                                                                                     •  Different Components of a Robot: Frames,
                                                                                        Materials, and Wheel Types
                                                                                     •  Coordinate Systems: Mapping the Robot's
                                                                                        World
                 MECHANICAL SYSTEM                                                   •  Specification of Robots: Defining
                                                                                        Performance Metrics
                                                                                     •  Case Study: A Surgical Assistant Robot for
                                                                                        Minimally Invasive Surgery



                 Now let’s turn our attention to the fundamental spatial concepts that allow a robot to understand where it is and how to
                 move. This involves a deep dive into Frames and Reference Frames, which are essentially the language of location and
                 orientation for any robotic or mechanical system.
                 This chapter will help you understand the mechanical foundation of robots, which is often compared to the skeletal
                 and muscular systems of humans. Learners will explore the two basic building blocks of robotic structures: links
                 (rigid parts) and joints (connections enabling movement). Together, these mechanisms that allow robots to move in
                 different directions. A major concept introduced here is the Degrees of Freedom (DOF), which describes how many
                 independent movements a robot can perform. Students also learn to differentiate between planar mechanisms (2D
                 motion) and spatial mechanisms (3D motion). The chapter highlights the importance of workspace (the physical area
                 a robot can reach) and payload (the weight a robot can carry safely). Additionally, materials used for constructing
                 robots—such as MDF, acrylic, aluminium, and steel—are compared for strength, cost, and usage. Special mobility
                 solutions like omni and mecanum wheels are also introduced, showing how robots achieve flexible movement in
                 tight or complex environments. By the end of the chapter, students will be able to connect abstract concepts like DOF
                 and workspace with real-world robotic designs, making them appreciate the importance of mechanical systems in
                 enabling robotic functionality.
                 Frames and Reference Frames: The Foundation of Robot Positioning

                 Imagine trying to give directions to a friend without a shared understanding of north, south, or a specific landmark. It
                 would be impossible. Similarly, for a robot to know where its parts are or how to move to a specific location, it needs a
                 system to define position and orientation. This system is known as a Frame or a Coordinate Frame.




                                                                                                                       53
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="56"><![CDATA[A Frame is a coordinate system (with an origin and a set of three perpendicular axes, typically labelled X, Y, and Z) that
              provides a reference for defining the position and orientation of objects within that system. Every object in a robotic
              system, from the robot’s base to its gripper, is described relative to some frame. By understanding these frames and how
              they relate to each other, a robot can navigate its environment and perform tasks with extreme precision.
              Frames: The Local Coordinate System

              Every component in a robot has its own local frame. For instance, a robot’s forearm has a frame attached to it, an
              accelerometer sensor has a frame attached to it, and a workpiece on a table has its own frame.
                  Position: The location of an object’s origin can be described by a position vector from the origin of a reference frame
              u
                  to the object’s origin. The position of a point in space (e.g., the fingertip of a gripper) is defined by a set of coordinates
                  (x, y, z) relative to the origin of a frame. For instance, if a robot’s base frame is at the origin (0, 0, 0) of a room, the
                  position of a table could be a vector to its centre at (2, 5, 0) metres.
                  Orientation: The orientation of an object (e.g., which way the gripper is facing) is defined by the rotation of its local
              u
                  frame’s axes relative to the axes of a reference frame. For example, if a gripper needs to be rotated 90 degrees to
                  pick up an object, this is described as a rotation of the gripper’s frame relative to the frame of the object.
                  Pose: The combination of an object’s position and orientation is called its pose. A robot’s entire movement can be
              u
                  described as a change in the pose of its various parts.
              The beauty of using frames is that once you know the relationship between different frames, you can translate positions
              and orientations from one frame to another. This is the core of how a robot’s ‘brain’ understands its body.

              Reference Frames: Understanding Moving and Fixed Frames
              In robotics, we primarily deal with two types of reference frames: fixed frames and moving frames.

              Fixed Frames (Static Reference Frames)
                  Description: A fixed frame is a coordinate system that remains stationary and does not move. It serves as the main,
              u
                  universal reference point for the entire system or environment.
                  Common Fixed Frames:
              u
                     World Frame: This is the ultimate, global reference frame. It’s often placed at a convenient, fixed location in the
                     l
                     robot’s workspace, such as a corner of the factory floor or the centre of a room. All other positions are ultimately
                     referenced back to this world frame.
                     Base Frame: This is a fixed frame attached to the robot’s base. It’s often coincident with the world frame but is a
                     l
                     more direct reference for the robot’s own structure. All of the robot’s movements and joint angles are calculated
                     relative to this base frame.





















                  Crucial Role: Fixed frames are the anchor points. They provide a stable, unchanging reference for everything. For
              u
                  a robot to know where to go, it needs to know the destination’s coordinates in a fixed frame. For example, in a car
                  factory, the location of a car’s chassis on the assembly line is defined by coordinates in the world frame.
              54
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="57"><![CDATA[Characteristics:
                 u
                        They provide a constant reference for all other frames in the system.
                       l
                        They are essential for defining the robot’s workspace and the location of objects within that space.
                       l
                        All other frames’ poses are typically defined in relation to this fixed frame.
                       l
                    Example: In a robotic arm, the base frame is a fixed frame. It is usually attached to the ground or a sturdy workbench
                 u
                    and serves as the zero-point for all of the robot’s movements. When a robot is told to move its hand to a specific
                    coordinate, those coordinates are almost always in reference to this fixed base frame.
                    Practical Use: When a part is placed at a known location on an assembly line, its position is defined in the factory’s
                 u
                    fixed frame. The robot uses this fixed frame to calculate its movements.
                 Moving Frames (Dynamic Reference Frames)
                    Description: A moving frame is a coordinate system that is attached to a moving object or part of the robot. As the
                 u
                    object moves, its frame moves with it.

























                    Common Moving Frames
                 u
                        Link Frames: Each link (or segment) of a robotic arm has its own frame attached to it. When the joint moves, the
                       l
                        frame attached to the link also moves.
                        End-Effector Frame: This is the most important moving frame for many tasks. It is attached to the robot’s tool or
                       l
                        gripper. Its position and orientation in space are constantly changing as the robot arm moves.
                        Sensor Frame: Each camera or LiDAR sensor has its own coordinate frame attached to it. The measurements
                       l
                        taken by the sensor (for example, the distance to an object) are expressed in this sensor’s local frame. To be
                        useful for navigation or mapping, these measurements must be transformed into the world frame (or the robot’s
                        global reference frame), where all data from different sensors and movements are aligned.
                    Crucial Role: Moving frames allow the robot to understand the complex geometry of its own body. A robot arm’s
                 u
                    ‘brain’ doesn’t just know the angles of its joints; it knows the location of the end-effector frame relative to the fixed
                    base frame by calculating the chain of relationships between all the moving link frames.
                    Characteristics:
                 u
                        They are used to define the pose of individual components of the robot.
                       l
                        The pose of a moving frame is typically defined relative to the frame of the component immediately preceding it
                       l
                        (e.g., the frame of the forearm is defined relative to the frame of the upper arm).
                        Using moving frames simplifies the mathematical analysis of complex, multi-jointed movements.
                       l
                    Example: Each link (segment) of a robotic arm has its own moving frame. As the first joint rotates, the frame attached
                 u
                    to the second link moves along with it. Similarly, the End-effector (the gripper or tool) has its own moving frame,
                    which defines the precise location and angle of the tool’s tip.

                                                                                                                       55
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="58"><![CDATA[Practical Use: To find the position of the robot’s hand, its controller uses forward kinematics, which involves a chain
              u
                  of calculations. It starts with the fixed base frame, and then sequentially transforms the coordinates through each
                  moving frame, link by link, until it reaches the end-effector. This chain of transformations allows the robot to precisely
                  know its hand’s position in the fixed frame at all times.
              The Mathematical Connection: Transformations between Frames

              The relationship between different frames is defined by a Transformation, which consists of a translation (a shift in
              position) and a rotation (a change in orientation).

                  Translation: This is simply the vector that points from the origin of one frame to the origin of the other.
              u
                  Rotation: This is the rotational matrix that describes how the axes of one frame are oriented with respect to the other.
              u
              As we discussed in the “Matrix Operations” section, these two concepts are combined into a single  Homogeneous
              Transformation Matrix. This powerful mathematical tool allows the robot’s controller to perform a series of calculations to:
              1.  Forward Kinematics: Calculate the position and orientation of the end-effector frame relative to the base frame,
                  given all the joint angles. This involves multiplying all the transformation matrices of the links in a chain.
              2.  Inverse Kinematics: Calculate the required joint angles to move the end-effector frame to a desired position and
                  orientation in the world frame. This involves working backward from the final desired position to find the necessary
                  joint angles.

              Some Practical Use from Real World Robotics

              Understanding frames is not just a theoretical exercise; it’s the foundation of a robot’s ability to perform precise tasks.
              1.  Industrial Manipulators: A robotic arm in a factory needs to pick up a part from a specific location on a conveyor
                  belt and place it at a specific location on a pallet. Both the conveyor and the pallet’s locations are defined in the
                  world frame. The robot’s controller uses inverse kinematics and the relationships between its base frame and its
                  moving link frames to calculate the required joint angles to accurately place its gripper’s end-effector frame at the
                  destination coordinates.
              2.  Autonomous Vehicles: A self-driving car needs to know its location on a digital map of Jammu. The map is a large,
                  fixed world frame. The car, with its sensors, constantly tracks its own moving vehicle frame relative to this world
                  frame. When a camera or LIDAR detects a pedestrian, the pedestrian’s position is first measured in the moving sensor
                  frame. This position is then immediately transformed into the vehicle frame and then into the world frame, so the
                  vehicle can share this information with its other control systems for a complete understanding of the environment.
              3.  Search and Rescue Drones: A drone surveying a disaster zone uses a fixed Global Positioning System (GPS) frame
                  as its primary reference. Its onboard Inertial Measurement Unit continuously tracks its position and orientation in
                  its own moving drone frame, which is then used to update its location in the fixed GPS frame. This allows the drone
                  to provide accurate coordinates of a detected survivor or a collapsed building, even if it loses its GPS signal for a
                  short time.
              So, we can say that frames are the invisible grid systems that give a robot’s world and its body structure. Fixed frames
              provide a stable reference point, while moving frames allow the robot to understand its own motion and the dynamic
              relationship between its parts. By using mathematical transformations to navigate between these frames, a robot can
              achieve the kind of precise, coordinated, and autonomous movements that we see in industrial automation and advanced
              mobile robotics. This is the bedrock upon which all sophisticated robotic control is built.
              Degrees of Freedom: From Robotic Motion to 3D Design

              The term Degrees of Freedom refers to the number of independent parameters that define the configuration of a system.
              For a rigid body in three-dimensional space, there are a total of six degrees of freedom: three for translation (movement
              along an axis) and three for rotation (turning around an axis).
                  Translation: Moving the object left/right on X-axis (Surge), forward/backward on Y-axis (Heave), and up/down on
              u
                  Z-axis (Sway).
              56
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="59"><![CDATA[Rotation: Turning the object around the X-axis (roll), Y-axis (pitch), and Z-axis (yaw).
                 u
                 While a complex robotic arm might have many more degrees of freedom (one for each joint), these six fundamental
                 degrees of freedom are what we use to manipulate objects in a virtual design environment.
                                                          Rotational Movement about
                             Translational Movement                                        Six Degrees of Freedom
                            in Three Perpendicular Axes    Three Perpendicular Axes
                                                                                              Heave
                                Heave                             Roll                     Roll           Sway
                                           Sway


                                        Surge              Yaw                             Yaw
                                                                                                          Surge
                                                                        Pitch                          Pitch

                         Surge: Moving forward/backward     Roll: Tilting side-to-side           Surge   Roll
                         Heave: Moving up/down              Pitch Tilting forward and backward   Heave  Pitch
                         Sway: Moving left/right            Yaw: Turning left and right          Sway   Yaw

                 3D Modelling: Designing Structures in a Virtual Space
                 3D Modelling is the process of creating a three-dimensional representation of an object using specialised software. It’s an
                 indispensable skill for robotics engineers, allowing them to design a robot’s mechanical components, chassis, and mounts
                 before building a physical prototype. This saves time and resources by enabling virtual testing and refinement.
                 A beginner-friendly, browser-based tool for creating 3D models is Tinkercad. It’s an excellent platform for students to
                 learn the basics of manipulating shapes in a virtual space.

























                 Designing Structures in Tinkercad Using Degrees of Freedom

                 Tinkercad’s interface is built around the six degrees of freedom. You design by placing and manipulating basic geometric
                 shapes, which can then be combined or subtracted from each other.
                 Manipulating Shapes

                    When you place a shape (like a cube or a cylinder) onto the workplane (the virtual ground), you can control its
                 u
                    position, size, and orientation using the six degrees of freedom.
                    Moving: You can click and drag the shape to move it along the X and Y axes on the workplane. You can also use a
                 u
                    small cone or arrow on the shape to lift it up or down along the Z-axis.
                    Scaling: By clicking and dragging the white and black squares on the corners and edges of the shape, you can
                 u
                    manipulate its size. You can scale it along all three axes, effectively changing its length (X), width (Y), and height (Z).
                    This is a direct application of translational degrees of freedom to change the shape’s dimensions.

                                                                                                                       57
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="60"><![CDATA[Rotating: When you click on a shape, curved arrows appear around it. You can click and drag these arrows to rotate
              u
                  the shape around the X, Y, or Z-axis. This allows you to orient the shape in any direction. For instance, to place a
                  robot’s motor mount at a specific angle, you would use these rotational tools.
              Designing Different Structures
                  A Robotic Chassis: You  could start  with a flat rectangular prism  as the base
              u
                  of the chassis. Then, you could add four cylindrical shapes for motor mounts at
                  the corners, rotating them 90 degrees if needed. You could then use the "Hole"
                  feature (a special tool in Tinkercad that subtracts one shape from another) to
                  create openings for wheels and other components.

                                                 A Simple Gripper: To design a basic two-finger gripper for a robotic arm, you
                                              u
                                                 might create two long, thin blocks as the fingers. You would then use the rotation
                                                 tools to orient them correctly and the move tool to position them so they are
                                                 aligned to grasp an object. By combining these shapes, you create a new, more
                                                 complex structure.

              u   A Sensor Mount: You could design a custom enclosure for a sensor by creating a box shape and then using the
                  "Hole" feature to create an opening for the sensor to fit in. You would use all six degrees of freedom to precisely
                  position the opening and any screw holes for mounting.
              Tinkercad’s simplicity allows students to grasp these fundamental principles intuitively. By actively moving, scaling, and
              rotating shapes, they are directly applying the six degrees of freedom that govern all rigid body motion, a concept that is
              directly applicable to a robot’s physical movement.


                                    The Collapsing Robot
                                    After working  solidly  for  10 hours in a warehouse, a delivery  robot  suddenly  collapsed
                                    mid-shift.  The team  was bewildered  but  simply  restarted it  after a quick  “oil-and-battery
                                    break.” They joked about giving it a medal for “Longest Shift (No Pay).”
               actual funny
                  incidents         Learning: Machine endurance has limits; regular maintenance keeps them going.


              Planar Mechanisms: Motion in Two-Dimensions

              A Planar Mechanism is a mechanical system where all the links and          Joint 2                Link 2
              joints move within a single, two-dimensional plane. This means their
                                                                                     Link 1
              motion is confined to a flat surface, with no movement in or out of
              that plane. While this might seem like a limitation, it simplifies the
              design and control of these systems, making them highly effective for               Joint 1     End of arm
              a wide range of applications.
              The  motion  of a planar  mechanism  can be fully  described  by the
                                                                                                 Link 0
              positions  and orientations  of its  links on a flat (X-Y)  plane. This
              simplifies the mathematical analysis, as we only need to deal with
                                                                                                  Base
              two  translational  degrees  of freedom  (moving  along the  X and Y
                                                                                                        Ground
              axes) and one  rotational  degree  of freedom  (turning around  the
              Z-axis, which is perpendicular to the plane).

              Key Components of a Planar Mechanism
              A planar mechanism, like any mechanism, consists of a few basic components:

                  Links: These are the rigid bodies that make up the mechanism’s structure. They can be of various shapes and sizes.
              u
              58
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="61"><![CDATA[Joints: These are the connections between the links that allow relative motion. In planar mechanisms, the most
                 u
                    common joints are:
                        Revolute Joint: Allows two links to rotate relative to each other, like a hinge.
                       l
                        Prismatic Joint: Allows two links to slide relative to each other along a straight line.
                       l
                    Frame: One of the links is a fixed link, called the Frame, to which all the other links are connected. This provides a
                 u
                    stable reference point for the entire mechanism’s motion.
                 Characteristics of Planar Mechanisms

                 1.  Two-Dimensional Motion: All points on the mechanism move within or parallel to the same plane. This simplifies the
                    mathematical analysis from three dimensions to two, primarily using coordinate geometry.
                 2.  Links and Joints: Like a robotic arm, a planar mechanism consists of rigid links connected by joints. The most
                    common joints are:
                        Pin Joints (Revolute Joints): Allow rotation in the plane, like a hinge.
                       l
                        Slider Joints (Prismatic Joints): Allow linear motion (sliding) in the plane, like a piston moving in a cylinder.
                       l
                 3.  Kinematic Analysis: The behaviour of a planar mechanism can be fully described by its kinematics—the study of
                    its motion (position, velocity, and acceleration) without considering the forces involved. This is significantly easier to
                    perform for planar systems than for three-dimensional systems.
                 4.  Degrees of Freedom: The degrees of freedom of a planar mechanism refer to the number of independent variables
                    needed to completely define its position. For a mechanism with one input motion (like a crank), the degrees of
                    freedom are typically one.


                                                      Robots are Already Helping Doctors Save Lives
                                      Medical robotics is one of the most inspiring applications of AI and robotics. The Da Vinci
                                   Surgical System, for example, allows surgeons to operate with robotic arms that moves more
                      BRAINY      precisely than a human hand. These systems can perform minimally invasive surgeries, reducing
                       FACT
                                   recovery time and risk for patients. Robots are also used in telemedicine, where doctors in one
                                      country can operate on a patient in another, thanks to robotic precision and fast internet
                                             connectivity. It’s science fiction becoming everyday healthcare reality.



                 Real-Life Examples of Planar Mechanisms

                 Planar mechanisms are everywhere around us, demonstrating their practicality and effectiveness in solving specific
                 mechanical problems.
                 Windshield Wipers

                    Mechanism: A classic example is the windshield wiper mechanism in a car. It uses a motor to drive a crank (a
                 u
                    rotating link). This crank is connected to a series of other links that translate its continuous rotational motion into the
                    back-and-forth oscillating motion of the wiper blade across the windshield.
                    How it Works: The motor rotates in a circle, but the linkage system ensures that the wiper blade moves in a controlled
                 u
                    arc, covering the windshield efficiently. The entire system operates in a single plane, the surface of the windshield.

                 Scissors
                    Mechanism: A pair of scissors is a simple two-link planar mechanism. Each blade is a link, and they are connected
                 u
                    by a single revolute joint (the pivot point).
                 u   How it Works: When you apply force to the handles, the blades rotate around the pivot in a single plane to cut paper
                    or cloth. The motion is entirely restricted to the plane of the scissors.




                                                                                                                       59
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="62"><![CDATA[Bike Pedal and Chain System
                  Mechanism: The pedal and chain system on a bicycle is another excellent example. When you pedal, your feet apply
              u
                  force to the pedals, which are linked to the crankset. The crankset, a revolute joint, is connected to the chain, which
                  transfers the power to the rear wheel.
                  How it Works: The entire action of pedalling, from the rotation of the crank to the movement of the chain and the
              u
                  turning of the rear sprocket, all happens within a single plane.
              Excavator Arm
                  Mechanism: While a full excavator arm is a three-dimensional mechanism, a simplified view of its bucket motion can
              u
                  be thought of as a planar mechanism. The linkages that move the bucket to scoop and dump material often operate
                  in a controlled, two-dimensional arc.
                  How it Works: The hydraulic cylinders and a series of rigid links work together to guide the bucket’s path, keeping its
              u
                  movement primarily within a single vertical plane to dig into the ground or load a truck.
              Piston in a Car Engine
                  Mechanism: Inside a car engine, the mechanism that converts the linear motion of the piston into the rotational
              u
                  motion of the crankshaft is a classic four-bar linkage. The piston and its connecting rod, the crankshaft, and the
                  engine block all form a planar mechanism.
                  How it Works: The explosion of fuel forces the piston to move linearly. This motion is transferred through the
              u
                  connecting rod, causing the crankshaft to rotate. This planar motion is fundamental to how internal combustion
                  engines work.
              Planar  mechanisms,  despite  their two-dimensional  nature, are incredibly  versatile  and form the basis  of countless
              machines. By restricting motion to a single plane, we can create systems that are simpler, more reliable, and easier
              to control. Understanding these mechanisms is an essential step toward appreciating the complexity and ingenuity of
              three-dimensional robotic systems.

              Spatial Mechanisms: Three-Dimensional Motion in Action

              A Spatial Mechanism is a mechanical system where the motion of its links and joints is not confined to a single plane.
              Instead, it operates in three-dimensional space, allowing for movement in multiple directions (along the X, Y, and Z axes)
              and rotation around multiple axes. This freedom of movement is what enables these mechanisms to perform complex
              tasks that require a wide range of motion, from the precise movements of a surgical robot to the powerful lifting of an
              industrial crane.


























              The analysis of spatial mechanisms is more complex than that of planar mechanisms because we must account for all six
              degrees of freedom of each link. However, this complexity is also what gives them their incredible versatility.

              60
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="63"><![CDATA[Key Characteristics of a Spatial Mechanism

                 u   Three-Dimensional Links: The links are not flat and can have complex, non-planar shapes.
                    Three-Dimensional Joints: The joints allow for movement in all three dimensions. Common types of spatial joints
                 u
                    include:
                        Revolute Joints: Still used, but in a spatial context, they allow rotation around an axis in 3D space.
                       l
                        Spherical Joints (Ball-and-Socket): Allow a link to rotate freely around a point, like a human shoulder or hip joint.
                       l
                        Helical Joints: Allow for simultaneous rotation and linear motion, like a screw moving inside a nut.
                       l
                        Universal Joints: Connect two links that can rotate around different axes, enabling the transfer of motion at
                       l
                        an angle.

                                      The Overenthusiastic Helper
                                      A cleaning robot in a school was programmed to scrub floors daily. One day, it saw a spilled
                                      bottle of soda in the hallway and began frantically chasing the sticky trail—right out of the
                                      building and onto the playground. The janitor retrieved the robot from a muddy puddle, and
                                      now the robot’s “mess-detection” gets a human double-check.
                  actual funny
                    incidents         Learning: Robots need context to know when “helping” becomes hilarious mayhem.


                 Real-Life Examples of Spatial Mechanisms (Qualitative with Pictures)

                 Spatial mechanisms are integral to many machines we encounter daily or in specialised industrial settings.
                 Robotic Arms

                    Description: The industrial robotic manipulator we’ve discussed is the quintessential example of a spatial mechanism.
                 u
                    It’s designed to mimic the movements of a human arm, with multiple joints allowing for a vast range of motion.
                    How it Works: Each joint is a revolute joint that can rotate around an axis in 3D space. By coordinating the rotations
                 u
                    of all its joints—at the base, the elbow, and the wrist—the robotic arm can move its end-effector to virtually any point
                    within its workspace and orient it in any direction. This three-dimensional control is essential for tasks like welding a
                    car chassis or assembling intricate electronics.

                 Helicopter Rotor Systems
                    Description: A helicopter’s rotor system is a highly sophisticated spatial mechanism. It’s responsible for generating
                 u
                    lift and controlling the helicopter’s movement in all directions.
                    How it Works: The rotor blades are connected to the central mast by joints that allow them to change their pitch
                 u
                    (angle of attack), flap up and down, and lead/lag (move slightly forward and backward) during rotation. By precisely
                    changing the pitch of each blade in a synchronized, cyclic manner, the pilot can tilt the rotor disc, which generates a
                    force that moves the helicopter forward, backward, or sideways. The entire system is a complex interplay of forces
                    and movements in three dimensions.
                 Humanoid Robot Legs

                    Description: The legs of a humanoid robot are complex spatial mechanisms designed to replicate human walking.
                 u
                    They need to move in all three dimensions to maintain balance and navigate uneven terrain.
                 u   How it Works: A humanoid leg typically uses multiple joints, including a hip joint (a type of ball-and-socket-like
                    mechanism), a knee joint (a revolute joint), and an ankle joint. The hip joint is a key spatial joint, allowing the leg to
                    swing forward and backward, move sideways, and rotate inward and outward. Coordinating the motion of all these
                    joints allows the robot to walk, run, and balance in three-dimensional space.




                                                                                                                       61
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="64"><![CDATA[Cranes and Excavator Arms
                  Description: The arm of a large crane or an excavator is a spatial mechanism. It’s designed to lift and move heavy
              u
                  loads across large distances and in various directions.
                  How it Works: The mechanism typically consists of a large base that can rotate (yaw), a long boom that can be
              u
                  raised and lowered (pitch), and a hydraulic system that extends and retracts the arm. The combination of these
                  movements allows the crane to reach objects in any part of a construction site and place them with precision. The
                  entire system operates in three-dimensional space, accounting for gravity, load, and wind.

















              Spatial mechanisms are crucial for any application where motion is not restricted to a flat plane. Their design requires
              a deep understanding of three-dimensional kinematics and dynamics, which is a core part of advanced robotics and
              mechanical  engineering.  They are the  systems  that  allow robots  to  truly  interact  with  our three-dimensional  world,
              performing tasks that require the full range of motion.

              Robot Kinematics: The Geometry of Motion

              Planar Open-Chain Mechanism
              A Planar Open-chain Mechanism is a series of rigid links connected by joints, where the entire structure is confined to
              moving within a single, two-dimensional plane. It’s called “open-chain” because the links are arranged in a sequence,
              from a fixed base to a final end-effector, without forming any closed loops. This type of mechanism is a great starting point
              for understanding kinematics because its motion can be described using straightforward two-dimensional geometry and
              trigonometry.

              Components
                  Links: Rigid rods of a specific length.
              u
                  Joints: Connections  between the links that  allow relative  motion.  In  planar mechanisms,  these  are typically
              u
                  revolute (R) joints (allowing rotation) or prismatic (P) joints (allowing linear sliding).
                  Base: A fixed link that acts as the starting point.
              u
                  End-Effector: The final link, to which a tool or gripper is attached.
              u
              The “planar” part means that all joint axes are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of motion, so the
              entire arm stays flat.
              Forward Kinematics of Different Planar Configurations

              Forward  kinematics is  the  process  of calculating the  position  and  orientation of the  robot’s  end-effector  in a fixed
              reference frame, given the known lengths of all the links and the values of all the joint variables (e.g., joint angles for
              revolute joints or joint displacements for prismatic joints).

              Let’s examine two common planar open-chain configurations.
              Configuration 1: The 2R Planar Manipulator

              The “2R” configuration refers to a planar manipulator with two revolute joints.

              62
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="65"><![CDATA[Think of it as a simplified version of a human arm, with a shoulder and an elbow.
                                                 y



                                                                       final position







                                                                  motor 2

                                          motor 1                            initial condition

                                               0         Link 1           Link 2               x
                    Description:
                 u
                        It has a base, two links of lengths L   and L  , and two revolute joints.
                       l                              1     2
                        The first joint connects the base to the first link (L  ), and the second joint connects the first link to the second
                       l                                            1
                        link (L  ).
                             2

                        The joint variables are the angles of rotation,   and   , relative to their respective links.
                       l                                        1     2
                        The goal of forward kinematics is to find the (x,y) coordinates of the end-effector.
                       l
                 u   Mathematical Model: We can use basic trigonometry to determine the end-effector’s position.
                        The first link’s end is at (x  ,y  ). Using the angle   , its coordinates are: x  =L cos(  ) y  =L  sin(  )
                       l                      1  1               1                  1  1    1  1  1  1
                        The second link’s end (the end-effector) is at (x  ,y  ). Its position is relative to the first link’s end. The angle of the
                       l                                         2  2
                        second link relative to the base is (  +  ). Therefore, its coordinates are: x  =x  +L  cos(  +  )=L  cos(  )+L  cos(  +  ) y
                                                         2
                                                                                                              2
                                                                                                           1
                                                                                                                   1
                                                                                                                        2
                                                       1
                                                                                                                     2
                                                                                                   2
                                                                                         1
                                                                                       2
                                                                                                      1
                                                                                                 1
                                                                                            2
                        =y  +L  sin(  +  )=L  sin(  )+L  sin(  +  )
                                                  1
                                                    2
                                             2
                                 1
                                   2
                          1
                            2
                                      1
                                          1
                    Example:
                 u
                        Imagine a 2R manipulator with link lengths L  =10 cm and L  =5 cm.
                       l                                      1           2
                        If the joint angles are   =30° and   =60°.
                       l                   1         2
                        We can calculate the end-effector’s position: x
                       l                                        2
                        =10cos(30°)+5cos(30°+60°)=10(0.866)+5(0)=8.66 cm y 2
                        =10sin(30°)+5sin(30°+60°)=10(0.5)+5(1)=5+5=10 cm
                        The end-effector’s position is (8.66,10) cm.
                       l
                 Configuration 2: The RP Planar Manipulator
                 The “RP” configuration refers to a planar manipulator with one revolute joint followed by one prismatic joint.
                                               z 2
                                                                      r i (t)
                                                       (t)
                                                       i
                                                           q (t)
                                                            i
                                                                                         z 1


                                                                                                                       63
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="66"><![CDATA[Description:
              u
                     It has a base and two links. The first link has a fixed length L   and rotates at an angle    (the revolute joint).
                     l
                                                                         1                      1
                     The second link is a prismatic joint, which slides in and out along the line defined by the first link. The joint variable
                     l
                     here is the displacement, or length, d   .
                                                      2
                     The goal is to find the (x,y) coordinates of the end-effector.
                     l
                  Mathematical Model:
              u
                     The end of the first link is at a distance L   from the base.
                     l
                                                        1
                     The second link extends an additional distance d along the same direction.
                                                                2
                     l
                     The total distance from the base to the end-effector is (L  +d  ).
                     l
                                                                      1  2
                     Using the angle   , the coordinates of the end-effector are: x=(L  +d  )cos(  ) y=(L  +d  )sin(  )
                     l
                                    1                                       1  2    1    1  2    1
                  Example:
              u
                     Consider an RP manipulator with link length L  =12 cm.
                     l
                                                             1
                     If the joint angle is   =45° and the prismatic displacement is d2 =8 cm.
                     l
                                      1
                     We can calculate the end-effector’s position:
                     l
                     x=(12+8)cos(45°)=20(0.707)=14.14 cm y=(12+8)sin(45°)=20(0.707)=14.14 cm
                     The end-effector’s position is (14.14,14.14) cm.
                     l
              Forward kinematics is essential for robot control. It allows the robot’s controller to know exactly where its tools are
              in space at any moment, which is a foundational requirement for tasks like picking and placing objects, welding, or
              assembly.
                                              Space Robots are Humanity's Eyes and Hands in the Universe
                                  Robots are key explorers of space. Mars rovers like Curiosity and Perseverance are robots
                                 equipped with cameras, drills, and AI to navigate alien terrain. They send back priceless data
                    BRAINY
                     FACT       about other planets, searching for signs of water or life. Even the International Space Station has
                                 a robotic assistant called Robonaut, designed to help astronauts with tasks in space. Without
                                 robots, exploring distant planets would be nearly impossible because of extreme conditions,
                                                delays in communication, and human survival challenges.


              Different Components of a Robot: Frames, Materials, and Wheel Types

              We’ve talked about motors, sensors, and microcontrollers as the ‘muscles,’ ‘senses,’ and ‘brain,’ respectively. Now, we’ll
              examine the ‘skeleton’ and ‘skin’ of a robot—its frames and materials—as well as its ‘feet’—the various types of wheels it
              can use.
              A robot is a highly integrated system where the choice of every component, from the main structural frame to the type of
              wheels it uses, is a critical design decision. These choices directly impact the robot’s functionality, strength, weight, and
              overall performance.

              Frames: The Robot’s Skeleton
              The Frame is the main structural component of a robot. It acts as the skeleton, providing the physical support for all the
              other components, including motors, sensors, batteries, and microcontrollers. The design of the frame determines the
              robot’s shape, size, and weight, as well as its ability to withstand forces and impacts.
                  Fixed Frames: As we discussed, a fixed frame provides a stable reference point. In the context of the robot itself, the
              u
                  robot’s main chassis is its fixed frame, even if the robot is mobile. This frame provides a rigid reference for the robot’s
                  own movements.
                  Moving Frames: Within the robot, moving frames are attached to components like robotic arms or grippers. The
              u
                  pose of these frames changes relative to the robot’s main chassis.

              64
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="67"><![CDATA[Design Considerations: The frame’s design must account for the weight distribution of the components, ensuring the
                 u
                    robot is balanced and stable. It also needs to be strong enough to handle the stresses of motion, especially for fast or
                    heavy-duty robots.
                 Materials: The Robot’s Skin

                 The materials used to build a robot’s frame and other components are chosen based on a trade-off between strength,
                 weight, cost, and ease of manufacturing.
                 Medium-Density Fibreboard (MDF)

                    Description: An engineered wood product made by breaking down wood into fibers, combining it with a wax and
                 u
                    resin binder, and forming it into panels.
                    Characteristics: It is dense, smooth-surfaced, uniform in texture, and easy to machine or shape.
                 u
                    Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to cut with simple tools, and good for rapid prototyping. It’s often used in educational
                 u
                    robotics projects.
                    Disadvantages: Heavy, not very strong, susceptible to water damage, and not suitable for high-stress applications.
                 u
                 Acrylic
                    Description: A type of clear plastic, also known by the trade name Plexiglas.
                 u
                    Characteristics: It is lightweight, transparent, and can be easily cut using laser cutters.
                 u
                    Advantages: Visually appealing, strong for its weight, and widely used for educational robots and aesthetically driven
                 u
                    projects.
                    Disadvantages: It can be brittle and prone to cracking under high stress. It also scratches easily.
                 u
                 Aluminium

                    Description: A lightweight, silvery-white metal.
                 u
                    Characteristics: Strong, durable, and has a very good strength-to-weight ratio.
                 u
                    Advantages: Excellent for constructing the frames of high-performance robots, drones, and robotic arms where low
                 u
                    weight and high strength are crucial. It is also easy to machine and does not rust.
                    Disadvantages: More expensive than plastic or MDF, and welding it can be more complex than welding steel.
                 u
                 Steel

                    Description: An alloy of iron and carbon.
                 u
                    Characteristics: Extremely strong and durable.
                 u
                    Advantages: Unmatched for structural strength, making it ideal for large, heavy-duty industrial robots, large-scale
                 u
                    manipulators, and mobile platforms that carry very heavy loads. It is also relatively inexpensive and easy to weld.
                    Disadvantages: Very heavy, making it unsuitable for most mobile and aerial robots where weight is a primary
                 u
                    concern. It is also susceptible to rust.

                 Wheel Types: The Robot’s Feet
                 The type  of wheels  a  robot  uses  determines  its  mobility,  manoeuvrability,  and  ability  to
                 traverse different surfaces.

                 Standard Wheels
                    Description: Simple, non-steerable wheels that  can only roll  forward  and backward.
                 u
                    They are the most common type and are often used in pairs on a drive axle.
                    Characteristics: A robot with standard wheels can only move forward, backward, and
                 u
                    turn in an arc (by spinning the wheels on opposite sides at different speeds).
                    Advantages: Simple, inexpensive, and efficient on flat surfaces.
                 u
                    Disadvantages: Lacks advanced manoeuvrability.
                 u
                                                                                                                       65
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="68"><![CDATA[Castor Wheels
                  Description: A non-powered wheel mounted in a swivelling yoke.
              u
                  It can roll in any direction and automatically align itself with the
                  direction of motion.
                  Characteristics: Often used in tri-wheel robots (one or two castor
              u
                  wheels with two standard drive wheels) to provide stability and
                  free-rolling support.
                  Advantages: Provides stability to the robot and simplifies turning.
              u
                  Disadvantages: It cannot be driven, and controlling it precisely can be difficult.
              u
                                               Mecanum Wheels

                                                    Description: These  wheels are  a  special  type  of  omnidirectional  wheel. The
                                               u
                                                   wheel’s rim is fitted with a series of smaller rollers at a 45-degree angle to the
                                                   wheel’s axis.
                                                    Characteristics: By  controlling  the  speed  and  direction  of rotation  of each
                                               u
                                                   wheel independently, a robot can move in any direction (forward, backward,
                                                   sideways, or diagonally) without needing to turn its body.
                  Advantages: Exceptional manoeuvrability, allowing the robot to operate in tight spaces.
              u
                  Disadvantages: Mechanically complex, more expensive, less efficient on uneven surfaces due to the rollers.
              u
              Omni Wheels

                   Description: Similar  to  Mecanum  wheels,  these  are omnidirectional  wheels.
              u
                  The wheel’s rim is fitted with rollers that are perpendicular to the wheel’s axis.
                   Characteristics: They allow a robot to move sideways by spinning some wheels
              u
                  while others roll freely.
                   Advantages: Provides excellent manoeuvrability, can move sideways, and is
              u
                  mechanically simpler than Mecanum wheels.
                  Disadvantages: Not  as  flexible  as  Mecanum  wheels for diagonal  movement
              u
                  and can be prone to slippage.


                                                                                                  21 st
                    VIDEO SESSION                                                               Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                 Skills
                    Scan the QR code or visit the following link to watch the video:
                    Types of Robotics Wheels

                    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KhRUgpJr1_4
                    After watching the video, answer the following questions:
                    1.  List the types of robotic wheels discussed in the video.



                    2.  Which wheel would you use for your robot, and why?











              66
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="69"><![CDATA[Coordinate Systems: Mapping the Robot’s World

                 It’s essential for any aspiring roboticist to master the concept of Coordinate Systems. Just as a map helps us locate a city
                 using a grid, a coordinate system provides a mathematical framework for a robot to define the position and orientation
                 of objects in its environment. A Coordinate System is a system that uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to
                 uniquely determine the position of a point or other geometric element on a manifold, such as Euclidean space. In robotics,
                 a coordinate system is a reference frame for describing a robot’s own location, the location of its components, and the
                 location of objects it interacts with.

                 Cartesian Coordinate System
                 The Cartesian Coordinate System is the most widely known and is also referred to        Y
                 as the rectangular coordinate system. It uses a set of perpendicular axes to define a
                 point in space.
                 Description
                    In two-dimensions (a flat plane), it uses two axes, the X-axis and the Y-axis.
                 u
                    A point is defined by its distance along each axis, written as (x,y).
                                                                                                                       X
                 u   In  three-dimensions (space),  it  adds  a third axis, the  Z-axis,  which  is
                    perpendicular to both the X and Y axes. A point is defined as (x,y,z).  Z
                    The origin of the system is the point where all axes intersect, typically at (0,0,0).
                 u
                 Application in Robotics
                 u   Industrial Manipulators: Cartesian coordinates are fundamental for controlling the end-effector of a robotic arm.
                    A programmer can instruct the robot to move its gripper to a specific location like “pick up the box at x=10,y=20,z=5
                    inches.” The robot’s  control system,  using  inverse kinematics,  translates  these  Cartesian  coordinates  into  the
                    necessary joint angles.
                    Mobile Robots: Wheeled robots often use a two-dimensional Cartesian system to navigate on a flat surface, like a
                 u
                    factory floor or a warehouse. The robot’s control unit continuously tracks its position in this (x,y) grid.
                    3D Printing and Milling Machines: These machines use a precise Cartesian system to move their tool head or bed to
                 u
                    exact (x,y,z) coordinates to deposit material or cut away material.
                 Advantages

                    Intuitive: It’s easy for humans to understand and visualize, as it directly corresponds to everyday concepts of left/
                 u
                    right, forward/backward, and up/down.
                    Simple for Many Tasks: Ideal for tasks that involve moving along straight lines, like picking and placing objects on
                 u
                    a grid.
                 Disadvantages
                    Not Ideal for Rotation: Describing rotational movements with a Cartesian system can be mathematically complex,
                 u
                    as it requires matrices and more intricate calculations.
                    Cumbersome for some Manipulators: For a robotic arm with multiple joints, calculating the motor movements for
                 u
                    a simple straight-line motion in a Cartesian system is not trivial; it requires solving inverse kinematics continuously.

                                                       AI Doesn't Just Predict the Future�It Creates it
                                     AI is behind many “invisible” technologies you use daily. When Netflix recommends your
                                    next binge-worthy show, or when Google Maps predicts the fastest route, that’s AI at work.
                      BRAINY         But it doesn’t just predict preferences—it actively shapes them. For example, YouTube’s AI
                       FACT
                                       recommends videos that keep you hooked, which influences what you learn, watch,
                                        or even believe. In this sense, AI isn’t just predicting the future; it’s co-writing it with
                                                        you every time you interact with technology.

                                                                                                                       67
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="70"><![CDATA[Polar Coordinate System
              The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional system that defines a point by its distance from a central point and
              its angle from a reference direction.

              Description
                  A point is defined by two coordinates:
              u
                     r (radius): The radial distance from the origin (the central point).
                     l
                       (theta): The angle measured from a fixed reference direction (the polar axis).
                     l
                  A point is written as (r, ).
              u
                                                    2
                                                    3              2            3
                                              3
                                               4                                      4
                                          5                                   5,  3
                                           6                                              6
                                                                        r




                                                                                          0.2
                                                                       1   2    3   4    5   6





                                          7                                               11
                                           6                                              6
                                              5                                       7
                                               4                                      4
                                                    4                           5
                                                    3               3           3
                                                                    2

              Application in Robotics

                  Robotic Arms with Revolute Joints: The base joint of a robotic arm often rotates around a central point, making it
              u
                  natural to describe its motion in polar coordinates. The robot’s arm can extend or retract (changing the radius ‘r’)
                  and rotate around its base (changing the angle ‘ ’).
                  Circular Movement: When a robot needs to move in a circle around a central object, or sweep a sensor (like a LIDAR)
              u
                  in a circular motion, the polar coordinate system is the most natural and efficient way to program it.
                  Range-Finding Sensors: Sensors that measure distance and angle (like some ultrasonic or infrared sensors on a
              u
                  rotating platform) naturally produce data in polar coordinates.
              Advantages

                  Intuitive for Rotational Motion: It’s very easy to describe and control rotational movements.
              u
                  Simple for Radial Movement: Describing the extension or retraction of a link is a straightforward change in the
              u
                  radius ‘r’.
              Disadvantages
                  Less Intuitive for Linear Motion: Moving in a straight line with polar coordinates is more complex to calculate and
              u
                  control.




              68
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="71"><![CDATA[Cylindrical Coordinate System
                 The Cylindrical Coordinate System is a three-dimensional system that is essentially a combination of the polar coordinate
                 system and a vertical Cartesian axis.

                 Description
                    A point is defined by three coordinates:
                 u
                        r (radius): The radial distance from the origin on the horizontal
                       l
                        plane.                                                                        y-axis   Z
                           (theta): The angle  from  a fixed  reference  direction  on the
                       l
                        horizontal plane.                                                                r          x-axis
                        z (height): The vertical distance from the horizontal plane along
                       l
                        the Z-axis.
                    A point is written as (r, ,z).
                 u
                 Application in Robotics

                 u   Cylindrical  Manipulators: Some  robotic  arms  are specifically  designed  to  work best  in  a  cylindrical  system.
                    Their movements are a rotation around a central axis (changing ‘ ’), a linear extension or retraction of an arm
                    (changing ‘r’), and a vertical up-and-down motion (changing ‘z’).
                    Drilling Robots: A robot designed to drill holes on the surface of a cylinder would find the cylindrical coordinate
                 u
                    system to be the most natural and efficient for describing its movements.
                    Mobile Robots with Vertical Lifts: A mobile robot that needs to move to a location and then raise an object to a
                 u
                    certain height might use a cylindrical system to plan its movement, as it separates the horizontal motion from the
                    vertical.
                 Advantages
                    Intuitive for Rotational and Vertical Motion: It is a natural fit for robots that have a dominant rotational joint and a
                 u
                    vertical linear joint.
                    Simplifies Certain Tasks: It simplifies the programming of tasks that involve moving around a central point and
                 u
                    changing height.
                 Disadvantages

                    Not a Universal System: Like the polar system, it is not as versatile as the Cartesian system for all types of motion.
                 u
                 Specification of Robots: Defining Performance Metrics

                 Resolution

                 Resolution refers to  the smallest incremental  movement  that  a robot  can detect  or achieve.  It is a measure  of the
                 granularity of the robot’s control system and sensors. Think of it like the pixel density of a digital image: a higher resolution
                 means more detail and a finer level of control. The resolution of a robot is determined by the resolution of its joint sensors
                 (encoders) and the precision of its motors.
                    Current Trends: Higher Resolution Encoders: Modern robotics is seeing a push toward higher-resolution encoders,
                 u
                    particularly in applications that demand exceptional precision, such as electronics or biomedical manufacturing.
                    These encoders can detect tiny changes in joint angles, allowing the robot to make incredibly small and precise
                    movements.
                        Real-time Example: In a semiconductor fabrication plant in countries like Taiwan, robots are used to place
                       l
                        microchips onto circuit boards. The robot’s joints are equipped with high-resolution encoders that can detect
                        rotational movements as small as a fraction of a degree. This allows the robot to place a microchip with a
                        resolution of a few micrometres, which is essential for ensuring the chip is perfectly aligned with the circuit
                        board’s contact points.

                                                                                                                       69
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="72"><![CDATA[Sub-Micron  Resolution: For high-precision  applications like  semiconductor  manufacturing,  robots  often  need  to
              u
                  operate at sub-micron levels. This means they must be able to move in increments of less than one micrometre
                  (one-millionth of a metre). Such robots are used for tasks like placing microchips or inspecting tiny components.
                  Integrated Vision Systems: Integrated vision systems that allow for real-time adjustments based on visual
              u
                  feedback further enhance a robot’s effective resolution. The robot can ‘see’ a slight positioning error and correct
                  it on the fly, allowing it to perform tasks with a level of precision that exceeds the mechanical resolution of its
                  components alone.
                     Real-time Example: A robot sorting fruit on a conveyor belt uses a high-resolution camera. The camera can
                     l
                     detect  a tiny  blemish  on an apple.  The robot’s  arm, while having a certain  mechanical  resolution,  uses  the
                     camera’s feedback to make minute adjustments in its grasp, ensuring it can precisely pick up and place the
                     apple without damaging it.

              Accuracy
              Accuracy is the ability of a robot to position its end-effector precisely at a desired location in three-dimensional space.
              It measures how close the robot’s actual position is to the target position. A robot can have high resolution (it can make
              very small movements) but low accuracy (it can’t get to the exact desired location). Accuracy is affected by factors like
              mechanical imperfections, joint play, temperature, and gravitational forces.
                  Current Trends: Enhanced Calibration Techniques: To achieve better absolute accuracy, modern robotics relies on
              u
                  advanced calibration techniques. Calibration is a process where the robot is precisely measured to account for all of its
                  mechanical imperfections, such as link lengths, joint alignments, and gear backlash. This data is then used by the control
                  system to create a more accurate mathematical model of the robot, minimizing errors in each part of the robot arm.
                     Real-time Example: In a car factory, a robotic arm is used to drill holes for screws on a car’s chassis. The robot is
                     l
                     initially calibrated using a laser tracker, which measures the exact position of the robot’s end-effector throughout
                     its workspace. This calibration data is then fed into the robot’s control software. Consequently, when the robot is
                     commanded to move to a specific drilling location, it can do so with much greater accuracy, ensuring the hole is
                     drilled in the correct spot.
                  Dynamic Error Compensation: In real-world applications, factors like temperature changes (which cause materials
              u
                  to expand or contract) or wear and tear on joints can degrade accuracy over time. Modern control systems use
                  dynamic error compensation to adjust for these factors. Sensors can monitor temperature, for example, and the
                  control system can apply corrections in real time to maintain a high level of accuracy.
                     Real-time Example: In a metal fabrication plant, a robotic arm is used for welding. The heat from the welding
                     l
                     torch can cause the robot’s arm to expand slightly, leading to a loss of accuracy. The robot’s control system,
                     equipped with temperature sensors, can compensate for this expansion in real-time, ensuring the weld remains
                     in the correct position.
                  Feedback Mechanisms: High-end robots use sophisticated feedback mechanisms to maintain accuracy. Techniques
              u
                  such as laser-based tracking systems or external vision systems can measure the robot’s actual position and provide
                  real-time correction signals back to the control system. This ensures that the robot is constantly adjusting its position
                  to match the desired location.
                     Real-time Example: A surgical robot performing a delicate operation uses a laser-based tracking system to
                     l
                     continuously monitor the position of its surgical instruments. This system provides real-time feedback to the
                     robot’s control unit, which makes minute adjustments to the instruments’ position to ensure they remain on the
                     intended trajectory, enhancing the surgeon’s precision.

              Repeatability
              Repeatability is a robot’s ability to return to a specific position under identical conditions repeatedly. It is a measure of
              the consistency of the robot’s motion. Think of it as a robot’s ability to place a pen in the exact same spot on a piece of
              paper over and over again, even if that spot is not exactly where you wanted it to be (that would be an accuracy issue).



              70
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="73"><![CDATA[High repeatability is crucial for tasks where consistency is more important than absolute accuracy.
                    Current Trends: Sub-millimeter Repeatability: Many industrial tasks require extremely high consistency. Modern
                 u
                    robots can achieve sub-millimeter repeatability, which is essential for tasks like spot welding in automotive production,
                    where the weld must be applied in the exact same location on every single car body to maintain structural integrity.
                        Real-time Example: In a factory producing smartphones, a robotic arm is used to pick up and place tiny electronic
                       l
                        components onto a circuit board. The robot is commanded to pick up a component from a fixed position and
                        place it onto a specific location on the board. The robot’s high repeatability ensures that it can perform this task
                        millions of times without any variation, leading to a consistently high-quality product.
                    Improved Mechanical Design: A significant factor in achieving improved repeatability is the mechanical design of
                 u
                    the robot. Stiffer, more rigid mechanical components and high-quality gearboxes are more reliable over repeated
                    cycles. They minimize joint play and other sources of mechanical variability, ensuring the robot can return to the
                    same position with very high consistency.
                        Real-time Example: A robot used for painting car parts requires high repeatability to ensure a uniform coating
                       l
                        every time. The robot’s arm is built with high-quality, low-backlash gearboxes that minimize play in its joints. This
                        mechanical precision, combined with a well-tuned control system, allows the robot to follow the same path with
                        the paint spray gun over and over again, resulting in a consistent finish on every single car part.
                    Adaptive Control Systems: Advanced robots use adaptive control systems to improve repeatability. These systems
                 u
                    can learn from their own past movements and adjust their control parameters to compensate for tiny, repeatable
                    errors. This is particularly useful for complex, repetitive motions, such as pick-and-place operations in logistics or
                    packaging, where a robot might handle millions of identical items over its lifetime.
                        Real-time Example: In a logistics warehouse in Bangalore, a robot is used for pick-and-place operations, moving
                       l
                        items from a conveyor belt to a box. The robot’s adaptive control system learns the exact trajectory it needs to
                        follow to pick up and place an item. Over time, it refines this trajectory, compensating for any minor deviations,
                        ensuring that every single item is placed in the box with the same precision, leading to faster and more reliable
                        packaging operations.
                 So, resolution, accuracy, and repeatability are the three critical specifications that define a robot’s physical capabilities.
                 Resolution is about the smallest step it can take, accuracy is about hitting the intended target, and repeatability is about
                 hitting the same spot every time. A robot’s ability to master these three metrics is what makes it a powerful and reliable
                 tool for automation in today’s world.


                     REBOOT

                        Answer the following Questions:
                        1.  Why are joints in robots often compared to human joints?
                        2.  What would happen if a robot had only one degree of freedom?

                        3.  Why is payload an important consideration for industrial robots?
                        4.  Which material would you choose for a lightweight drone body, and why?
                        5.  How are omni wheels different from normal wheels?




                 Case Study: A Surgical Assistant Robot for Minimally Invasive Surgery

                 Introduction
                 Building upon all the concepts we’ve discussed—from robot anatomy and programming to project management and
                 performance specifications—let’s now tie them all together in a single, comprehensive case study on the healthcare
                 industry. This will demonstrate how the various elements of robotics work in a practical, real-world application, showcasing
                 the incredible potential of New Age Robotics.
                                                                                                                        71
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="74"><![CDATA[Scenario
              A leading hospital in India, inspired by the Government’s ‘Digital India’ and ‘Heal in India’ initiatives, decides to acquire
              and integrate a Surgical Assistant Robot into its operating theatre. The goal is to perform complex, minimally invasive
              surgeries  with  greater  precision,  reducing  patient  recovery  time  and  enhancing  surgical  outcomes.  The robot  is  not
              autonomous but is a Semi-autonomous system, working under the direct, real-time control of a human surgeon.
























                                                      Some Robots are Swarms, Not Individuals
                                   Instead of one big robot, scientists design swarms of tiny robots that work together, just
                    BRAINY     like ants or bees. These swarm robots communicate with each other to achieve a common goal,
                     FACT      like cleaning up oil spills, exploring disaster zones, or delivering medicine inside the human body.
                                The fascinating part is that no single robot is “in charge”—they cooperate through simple rules,
                                   leading to highly intelligent group behaviour. It’s nature’s teamwork applied to robotics!



              Components of the Robot (Anatomy & Hardware)

              The surgical robot is a highly sophisticated system, combining multiple components we’ve discussed:
                  Manipulators: The robot has four slender robotic arms (manipulators), each with a wrist and end-effector. These are
              u
                  the main structural components that will hold surgical instruments. Each arm has multiple revolute joints, allowing
                  it to move with high dexterity in a spatial mechanism. The joints of this robot are built using materials like aluminum
                  for its high strength-to-weight ratio, ensuring the arms are strong enough to hold instruments while remaining light
                  and responsive.
                  Actuators (Muscles): Each joint in the robotic arm is powered by a high-precision servo motor. The choice of servo
              u
                  motors is critical here for their ability to achieve and hold an exact position with Sub-millimeter accuracy and
                  repeatability. This is essential to prevent any unintended movement during a delicate surgical procedure.
                  Sensors (Senses):
              u
                     Vision System: The robot has a high-definition, three-dimensional camera mounted on one of its arms, providing
                     l
                     the surgeon with an enhanced, magnified view of the surgical field. This is a crucial sensor payload.
                     Force/Tactile Sensors: The end-effectors  (grippers  and  instruments)  on  each  arm  are  equipped  with  highly
                     l
                     sensitive force sensors. These sensors provide real-time feedback to the surgeon, allowing them to “feel” the
                     pressure being applied to tissues, which is a significant part of the surgical experience that would otherwise be
                     lost in a purely remote system.
                     Inertial Measurement Units (IMU): Built into the arms, these sensors (gyroscopes and accelerometers) help the
                     l
                     control system maintain the stability and orientation of the instruments, preventing accidental movement from
                     external vibrations.

              72
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="75"><![CDATA[Control Unit (Brain): The robot’s intelligence is managed by a powerful Single Board Computer that processes
                 u
                    real-time data from all the sensors and translates the surgeon’s commands into precise movements. It is connected
                    to all the components via high-speed communication protocols like Controller Area Network (CAN) to ensure
                    deterministic, reliable, and real-time data exchange, a safety-critical requirement.
                    Power: The  entire  system  is powered  by  a robust  power supply with an integrated  Lead-acid  battery as an
                 u
                    uninterruptible  power source, ensuring  the  robot  does  not  lose  power  even in the  event  of a power  outage
                    during surgery.

                                                         AI has Created its Own "Art" and "Music"
                                       You may think creativity is purely human, but AI challenges that belief. AI systems like
                                   DALL·E and MidJourney can create stunning artwork, while AIs like AIVA can compose original
                      BRAINY         music pieces. Some of these works have even been displayed in galleries and performed in
                       FACT           concerts. While AI doesn’t “feel” emotions like humans do, it generates creative results by

                                      learning patterns from massive amounts of human-created content. It raises fascinating
                                     questions: is creativity just about patterns, or is there something uniquely human about it?



                 Programming Fundamentals & Control Systems
                 The robot’s behaviour is governed by a sophisticated control system and complex programming:
                    Control System: The robot uses a closed-loop control system. The surgeon’s commands are the input, and the robot’s
                 u
                    actual movements, measured by joint encoders and force sensors, are the feedback. The control unit continuously
                    compares the desired position with the actual position and corrects any error in real time. A PID (Proportional-Integral-
                    Derivative) controller is used for each joint to ensure smooth and stable movement, preventing overshoot or oscillation.
                    Algorithms: The robot’s movement is driven by two key sets of algorithms:
                 u
                        Kinematics: The surgeon moves their hands at a master console. The robot’s software uses inverse kinematics
                       l
                        to take these movements and calculate the corresponding joint angles for the robotic arms to precisely replicate
                        the surgeon’s actions inside the patient’s body. The surgical tools are all represented within the robot’s control
                        system using a Cartesian coordinate system.
                        Safety Algorithms: The robot’s system is programmed with a host of safety algorithms using Boolean operators.
                       l
                        For  example,  IF  (force_sensor_reading > SAFE_THRESHOLD)  OR  (robot_arm_collision  IS True) THEN  Initiate_
                        Emergency_Stop. This ensures that if the robot applies too much force or an arm collides with something, it stops
                        immediately.
                    Programming Language: The real-time control software is likely written in an efficient and reliable language like
                 u
                    Embedded C++, while the user interface for the surgeon’s console might be programmed in a higher-level language.
                 Project Management, Debugging, and Specifications

                 Before this robot could assist in a single surgery, a massive project management effort was undertaken:
                    Project Management:
                 u
                        Planning: The team defined the project’s scope (e.g., to build a semi-autonomous surgical robot for specific
                       l
                        procedures),  allocated  a significant  budget  for  development, and created  a detailed  timeline for  design,
                        prototyping, and testing. Risk management was a major focus, with contingency plans for component failures,
                        software bugs, and safety certification delays.
                        Execution: The engineering teams, comprised of mechanical, electrical, and software experts, worked in parallel
                       l
                        to design the manipulator arms (3D modeling in CAD), integrate the high-resolution camera, and write the
                        control software.
                    Debugging and Testing: This phase was extensive and critical for a life-critical application.
                 u
                        Simulation: Before building a physical prototype, engineers tested the robot’s kinematics and control algorithms
                       l
                        in a virtual simulation environment.
                                                                                                                       73
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="76"><![CDATA[Hardware-in-the-Loop  Testing: The robot’s  control  software was tested  with  a  physical  arm in a test  lab,
                     l
                     performing repeated movements to find bugs and calibrate the system.
                     Safety Testing: The robot  was subjected  to rigorous  safety  tests,  ensuring  its  emergency  stop  mechanisms
                     l
                     worked flawlessly and its force limits were within safe parameters.
                  Specifications: The robot’s performance was measured according to stringent specifications:
              u
                     Accuracy: It was calibrated to achieve very high absolute accuracy so that its instruments would be at the
                     l
                     correct location as commanded by the surgeon, despite mechanical imperfections.
                     Repeatability: It was designed for sub-millimetre repeatability, so that if a surgeon needed to perform the same
                     l
                     movement multiple times, the robot would follow the exact same path consistently.
                     Resolution: The entire system, from sensors to motors, was engineered for high resolution, enabling the robot to
                     l
                     make the minute adjustments required for delicate surgical procedures.
              Conclusion

              This case study of a surgical assistant robot brings to life all the theoretical concepts we have learned. It demonstrates
              how a successful robotic system is a masterpiece of engineering, integrating robust hardware with intelligent software
              and meticulous project management. It highlights the power of semi-autonomy, where the robot acts as an intelligent
              tool, enhancing human capability rather than replacing it, ultimately leading to better healthcare outcomes for patients.




                                                        ROBOT DYNAMICS
                    Links = rigid parts of a robot.

                    Joints = connectors that allow relative motion.
                    Degrees of freedom (DOF) measure a robot’s versatility.
                    Planar mechanisms move in 2D, spatial mechanisms move in 3D.
                    Workspace = the area a robot can cover.
                    Payload = maximum load a robot can handle.

                    Aluminium = lightweight and strong; Steel = durable but heavy; MDF/Acrylic = low-cost prototyping.
                    Omni and mecanum wheels allow sideways or diagonal movement.
                    Chassis/base provides stability to the robot.
                    Mechanical design decides how useful and efficient a robot will be.





                 RESEARCH ACTIVITY                                                             21 st
                                                                                              Century   #Experiential Learning
                                                                                               Skills
                These activities balance conceptual understanding (degrees of freedom),
                hands-on simulation (mechanism design), and real-world application (materials & wheels).

                1.  Mapping Degrees of Freedom with Your Own Body
                       Task: Observe your own arm and note down how many independent movements it can make (up/down, left/
                       l
                       right, rotation, bend at elbow, wrist, etc.). Compare this with a robot arm described in the chapter (2R or RP
                       manipulator).
                       Output: Draw a labelled diagram showing the “degrees of freedom” of a human arm vs. a robotic arm,
                       l
                       highlighting similarities and differences.
                       Learning Outcome: Understand the concept of degrees of freedom by linking theory to everyday human
                       l
                       anatomy.


              74
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="77"><![CDATA[2.  Design a Planar or Spatial Mechanism in Tinkercad

                         Task: Using Tinkercad  (free online  tool),  create  a simple  2D planar mechanism  (like  a scissor  or piston
                         l
                         system) and a simple 3D spatial mechanism (like a robotic arm with 3 joints). Try moving parts to simulate
                         their motion.
                         Output: Screenshots or a short video showing your models, along with a short note explaining how degrees
                         l
                         of freedom were applied in your design.
                         Learning Outcome: Apply theoretical knowledge of planar vs. spatial mechanisms in a virtual lab environment.
                         l
                  3.  Compare Materials and Wheels for Robots
                         Task: Research four materials (MDF, Acrylic, Aluminium, Steel) and two wheel types (Mecanum, Omni).
                         l
                         Create a table comparing their strength, cost, weight, and best application. For example: MDF (low-cost
                         prototypes), Aluminium (drones, robotic arms), Mecanum wheels (tight-space navigation).
                         Output: A comparative chart with pros, cons, and a suggested “best use case” for each material and
                         l
                         wheel type.
                         Learning Outcome: Develop decision-making skills in mechanical design—understanding why
                         l
                         engineers choose specific materials and mobility systems for different robots.












                                                             AT A GLANCE

                        A Frame is a coordinate system (with an origin and a set of three perpendicular axes, typically labelled X, Y,
                        and Z) that provides a reference for defining the position and orientation of objects within that system.
                        In robotics, we primarily deal with two types of reference frames: Fixed Frames and Moving Frames.
                        The term Degrees of Freedom refers to the number of independent parameters that define the configuration
                        of a system.

                        A Planar  Mechanism  is  a mechanical  system  where all the links and joints  move  within a single, two-
                        dimensional plane.

                        A Spatial Mechanism is a mechanical system where the motion of its links and joints is not confined to a
                        single plane.

                        A Planar Open-Chain Mechanism is a series of rigid links connected by joints, where the entire structure is
                        confined to moving within a single, two-dimensional plane.
                        Different Components of a Robot include Frames, Materials, and Wheel Types.
                        A Coordinate System is a system that uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the
                        position of a point or other geometric element on a manifold, such as Euclidean space.
                        Resolution refers to the smallest incremental movement that a robot can detect or achieve.
                        Accuracy is the ability of a robot to position its end-effector precisely at a desired location in three-dimensional
                        space.
                        Repeatability is a robot’s ability to return to a specific position under identical conditions repeatedly.







                                                                                                                       75
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="78"><![CDATA[EXERCISE




                                                                                                  Solved Questions
                                                SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                 QUIZ
              A.  Tick ( ) the correct option.
                  1.  The “bones” of a robotic arm are called:
                       i.  Sensors                                     ii.  Links

                      iii.  Joints                                    iv.  Actuators
                  2.  The connection that allows relative motion between two links is called:
                       i.  Sensor                                      ii.  Motor

                      iii.  Joint                                     iv.  Processor
                  3.  The number of independent movements a robot can make is called:
                       i.  Work envelope                               ii.  Payload

                      iii.  Degrees of freedom                        iv.  End-effector
                  4.  Which of the following is a planar mechanism?
                       i.  Robotic arm with elbow and wrist            ii.  Scissors

                      iii.  Drone propeller                           iv.  Humanoid walking
                  5.  A spatial mechanism moves in:

                       i.  Two-dimensions                              ii.  One-dimension
                      iii.  Three-dimensions                          iv.  Circular motion only
                  6.  The maximum reach of a robot manipulator is defined by its:

                       i.  Payload capacity                            ii.  Workspace
                      iii.  Algorithm                                 iv.  Link length

                  7.  Which material is often used in lightweight robotic arms?
                       i.  Aluminium                                   ii.  Steel
                      iii.  Concrete                                  iv.  Wood

                  8.  Omni wheels allow a robot to:
                       i.  Jump vertically                             ii.  Move in multiple directions
                      iii.  Increase torque                           iv.  Fly like a drone

                  9.  A robot’s structure that provides stability is called its:
                       i.  Chassis or base                             ii.  Sensor housing
                      iii.  Flowchart                                 iv.  End-effector

                  10.  The part of a robot responsible for actual work like gripping or welding is:
                       i.  Motor                                       ii.  Sensor

                      iii.  End-effector                              iv.  Processor





              76
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="79"><![CDATA[B.  Fill in the blanks.
                    1.  The rigid structural segments of a robot are called           .
                    2.  Connections between links are called               .

                    3.  The range of movement of a robot is determined by its             .
                    4.  A mechanism that operates in two-dimensional motion is called a              mechanism.
                    5.  A robotic arm moving in 3D space uses a                mechanism.
                    6.  The capacity of a robot to carry or lift weight is called its      .

                    7.  The physical area that a robot can cover is known as its           .
                    8.                     wheels enable sideways and diagonal movements without rotation.
                    9.  MDF and Acrylic are often used in building              prototypes.
                    10.  A                   provides stability and anchoring for the mechanical system.

                 C.  State whether these statements are true or false.
                    1.  Joints in a robot are like muscles in a human body.

                    2.  Spatial mechanisms allow motion only in 2D space.
                    3.  Aluminium is preferred for robots requiring strength with light weight.
                    4.  Degrees of freedom determine how versatile a robot’s movements are.
                    5.  Mecanum wheels are used for simple forward and backward movement only.

                 D.  Match the following:
                    1.  Link                                  a.  Area robot can cover

                    2.  Joint                                 b.  Connects two links, allows motion
                    3.  Payload                               c.  Weight a robot can handle
                    4.  Workspace                             d.  Rigid structural part
                    5.  End-effector                          e.  Performs the task (e.g., gripper)


                                                  SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)

                 A.  Short answer type questions.
                    1.  What are links in a robotic mechanical system?
                        Ans.   Links are rigid components that connect joints, forming the structure of a robot.

                    2.  Define degrees of freedom in robotics.
                        Ans.  Degrees of freedom are the independent movements a robot can make, determining its versatility.
                    3.  Differentiate between planar and spatial mechanisms.
                        Ans.  Planar mechanisms move in 2D space (like scissors), while spatial mechanisms move in 3D space (like
                             robotic arms).
                    4.  What is meant by the payload of a robot?

                        Ans.  Payload is the maximum weight a robot can safely carry or manipulate.
                    5.  Why is aluminium commonly used in robotic design?
                        Ans.  Aluminium is lightweight yet strong, making robots efficient without adding excessive weight.
                    6.  Explain the use of omni wheels in mobile robots.

                        Ans.  Omni wheels enable  robots  to  move  sideways  and  diagonally  without  rotating  their  body,  improving
                             maneuverability.
                                                                                                                       77
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="80"><![CDATA[B.  Long answer type questions.
                  1.  Describe the role of links and joints in forming a robot’s structure.
                     Ans.  Links are rigid parts; joints connect links and allow movement. Together, they give robots flexibility and
                           structure, much like bones and joints in the human body.
                  2.  Explain degrees of freedom with an example of a human arm vs. robotic arm.

                     Ans.  A human arm has multiple DOFs—shoulder rotation, elbow bending, wrist turning. Similarly, a robotic arm
                           has DOFs at its joints, defining how freely it can move in space.
                  3.  Discuss different materials used in constructing robots and their advantages.
                     Ans.  MDF and Acrylic are low-cost, good for prototypes. Aluminium is lightweight and strong. Steel is durable
                           but heavy. Each material is chosen based on strength, weight, and cost needs.
                  4.  Write a detailed note on workspace and payload of robots.

                     Ans.  Workspace defines the physical area a robot can reach, while payload is the maximum load it can handle.
                           Together, they determine robot efficiency in industries like automobile or electronics.

                  5.  Explain the significance of wheels (omni, mecanum) in robot mobility.
                     Ans.  Special wheels allow smooth movement in all directions. Mecanum and omni wheels improve flexibility,
                           crucial in warehouses, factories, and research robots.

                                                                                                    21 st
              C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                            Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                   Skills
                  1.   You are designing a warehouse robot to move boxes. What material and wheel type would you choose? Justify
                     your decision.
                     Ans.  Aluminium  for structure  (light  and  strong), and  omni/mecanum  wheels for flexible  navigation  in  tight
                           spaces.

                  2.   Suppose your robotic arm must paint a car’s surface evenly. Which mechanical features (DOFs, workspace,
                     end-effector design) would be most important?

                     Ans.  Multiple DOFs for full coverage, large workspace to reach surfaces, and a spray-paint end-effector for
                           precision.




                                                                                               Unsolved Questions
                                                SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                 QUIZ
              A.  Tick ( ) the correct option.
                  1.  The concept of degrees of freedom in robotics is most closely related to:

                       i.  Weight of the robot                         ii.  Number of independent motions possible
                      iii.  Speed of motors                           iv.  Power consumption
                  2.  If a robotic arm has 3 links and 3 joints, the maximum possible degrees of freedom will be:

                       i.  2                                           ii.  3
                      iii.  6                                         iv.  9

                  3.  Which of the following correctly represents a planar mechanism?
                       i.  Drone propeller system                      ii.  Robotic scissor lift
                      iii.  Humanoid walking motion                   iv.  Robotic arm with 3D rotation



              78
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="81"><![CDATA[4.  The workspace of a robot is defined as:
                         i.  Maximum payload it can lift                 ii.  Area or volume its end-effector can reach

                        iii.  Power consumed in one cycle               iv.  Speed of rotation of motors
                    5.  If an industrial robot is designed with higher payload capacity, which of the following will also increase?
                         i.  DOF                                         ii.  End-effector precision

                        iii.  Structural strength of links and joints      iv.  Energy efficiency
                    6.  Which material is least suitable for a high-strength robotic manipulator?
                         i.  Aluminium                                   ii.  Steel

                        iii.  MDF                                       iv.  Carbon fibre
                    7.  Mecanum wheels are uniquely capable of:

                         i.  Lifting payloads vertically                 ii.  Allowing diagonal and sideways motion
                        iii.  Reducing friction in links                iv.  Increasing payload capacity
                    8.  The structural base of a mobile robot is also called:

                         i.  Work envelope                               ii.  Chassis
                        iii.  Link frame                                iv.  Gearbox

                    9.  The payload-to-weight ratio of a robot is crucial because:
                         i.  It determines the type of sensors needed
                         ii.  It measures efficiency of mechanical design

                        iii.  It depends only on controller software
                        iv.  It reduces DOF automatically

                    10.  A 2R (two-revolute joint) robotic manipulator primarily works in:
                         i.  Planar 2D workspace                         ii.  Spatial 3D workspace
                        iii.  Circular motion only                      iv.  Payload optimisation

                 B.  Fill in the blanks.
                    1.  The rigid parts of a robot that define its geometry are called        .

                    2.  The connectors between links that allow relative motion are known as           .
                    3.  A mechanism that works in two-dimensional space is called a              mechanism.
                    4.  A robotic manipulator’s end-effector can only move within its           .
                    5.                     determines how many independent motions a robot can achieve.
                    6.  In industrial robots,               defines the maximum weight safely handled.

                    7.  The most common lightweight material used in drones is              .
                    8.  Omni wheels allow                   movement without rotating the chassis.
                    9.                     robots require careful balance of workspace and payload for optimal performance.

                    10.  The structural stability of a robot is ensured by its       .
                 C.  State whether these statements are true or false.
                    1.  A robot’s workspace is unlimited if it has more degrees of freedom.

                    2.  MDF is a cost-effective material but not ideal for heavy industrial robots.


                                                                                                                       79
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="82"><![CDATA[3.  Spatial mechanisms allow 3D movements, unlike planar mechanisms.
              4.  Increasing DOF always improves efficiency of a robot.
              5.  The chassis acts as the foundation and stabilizer of a mobile robot.

              D.  Match the following:

                  1.  Links                                 a.  Allows sideways mobility
                  2.  Joints                                b.  Rigid structural elements
                  3.  Workspace                             c.  Determines area reachable by robot
                  4.  Payload                               d.  Connects links and enables motion
                  5.  Mecanum wheels                        e.  Diagonal and lateral movement


                                                SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)

              A.  Short answer type questions.
                  1.  Explain why increasing payload requires stronger link and joint design.

                  2.  Differentiate between workspace and work envelope.
                  3.  Why are omni and mecanum wheels considered revolutionary in mobile robotics?
                  4.  How does the choice of material affect both the cost and efficiency of a robot?
                  5.  Compare planar and spatial mechanisms with real-world examples.

              B.  Long answer type questions.
                  1.   Discuss in detail how degrees of freedom determine the capability and complexity of robotic arms. Provide
                     examples of robots with different DOFs.
                  2.   Explain the role of materials and structural design in determining the efficiency, strength, and cost of robots.
                     Support your answer with case studies from drones and industrial manipulators.

                  3.   Evaluate the importance of workspace and payload balance in designing robots for industry. What challenges
                     arise when increasing one affects the other?

                                                                                                    21 st
              C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                            Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                   Skills
                  1.   You are tasked to design a robotic manipulator for an electronics factory that requires delicate handling of small
                     components. Which mechanical considerations (DOF, material, payload) would you prioritize and why?
                  2.   A warehouse robot must navigate narrow lanes, carry medium loads, and move in multiple directions. Suggest a
                     mechanical design (links, wheels, chassis) to meet these requirements.






                                                    DEGREE OF FREEDOM CHALLENGE

                Stretch your arm and list all the independent movements it can make (up, down, left, right, bend, rotate).
                Ask your classmate to repeat and note the number of DOFs.
                Compare: Who has more flexibility? Lesson: Just like humans, robots need multiple DOFs to perform complex tasks.








              80
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="83"><![CDATA[21 st
                                                                                               Century   #Experiential Learning
                                  A robot’s arm uses an actuator system to perform a series of   Skills
                                  delicate  movements.  The precision  of the actuators  is critical  for  accurate  execution.  How do
                     deep         actuators contribute to a robot’s overall precision, and what factors should be considered when
                   thinking       choosing actuators for different robotic applications?




                                                                                     21 st
                   LAB ACTIVITY                                                     Century   #Coding & Computational Thinking
                                                                                    Skills
                      “Measure Degrees of Freedom of a Robotic Arm”
                             Tools: A toy robotic arm kit (or DIY cardboard arm with joints + servo motors + Arduino).
                             l
                             Task: Count and test the DOF of the robotic arm.
                             l
                             Steps:
                             l
                             1.   Assemble or simulate a robotic arm with joints (base rotation, elbow, wrist, gripper).

                             2.   Connect each servo motor to Arduino.
                             3.   Write code to rotate each servo by specific angles (e.g., 0°, 90°, 180°).
                             4.   Observe how each joint adds a new degree of freedom.
                             Outcome: Students practically see how DOF and joints affect robot flexibility.
                             l





























                     Answers
                  Exercise (Solved)
                  A.  1. ii    2. iii    3. iii    4. ii    5. iii    6. ii    7. i   8. ii    9. i   10. iii
                  B.  1.  Links                        2.  Joints                 3.  Degrees of freedom   4.  Planar
                      5.   Spatial                     6.  Payload                7.  Workspace            8.  Omni
                      9.   Low-cost                   10.  Base or Chassis
                  C.  1.   False                       2.  False                  3.  True                 4.  True
                      5.  False
                  D.  1.   d.       2.  b.             3.  c.             4.  a.             5.  e.




                                                                                                                       81
                                                                                                          Mechanical System]]></page><page Index="84"><![CDATA[3





























                                                                                  LEARNING OBJECTIVES
                                                                                  l  Boolean Operators: The Logic Behind
                                                                                     Robot Decision-Making
                                                                                  l  Microcontroller/Single Board Computer
                                                                                     Architecture: The Robot’s Brain Unveiled
              COMPUTING SYSTEM                                                    l  Programming Fundamentals: Giving the
                                                                                     Robot its Instructions
                                                                                  l  Debugging and Testing: Ensuring Correct
                                                                                     and Efficient Program Execution



              Having explored the physical aspects of robots, their movement, sensing, and overall management, let’s now delve into
              a fundamental concept from the realm of computer science and logic that underpins a robot’s ability to ‘think’ and make
              decisions: Boolean Operators or Boolean logic, the foundation of all computing, which uses true/false values to build
              logical operations (AND, OR, NOT). The importance of algorithms (step-by-step instructions) and their representation
              through  flowcharts and  pseudocode is emphasised,  showing how ideas  are transformed  into  structured  programs.
              Students  are introduced  to  hardware computing  platforms  like  microcontrollers  (e.g.,  Arduino) and  single-board
              computers (e.g.,  Raspberry Pi), with  their  roles  compared—Arduino  for real-time  control of  sensors  and  actuators,
              Raspberry Pi for advanced computing tasks like vision and AI. The chapter also explains how controllers act as the “brain”
              of robots, processing data from sensors and directing actuators accordingly. By practicing algorithm writing, flowchart
              creation, and pseudocode development, students experience the entire cycle of robotic programming, from planning
              to coding. The key takeaway is that computing systems give robots intelligence, logic, and adaptability, making them
              much more than mechanical machines.
              Boolean Operators: The Logic Behind Robot Decision-Making

              Just like our brains use logic to make choices based on various pieces of information (e.g., “If it’s raining AND I need to
              go out, THEN I will take an umbrella”), a robot’s ‘brain’ – its microcontroller or Artificial Intelligence system – also relies on
              fundamental logical operations to interpret sensor data and determine appropriate actions. These fundamental logical
              operations are performed using Boolean Operators.

              Boolean algebra, developed by George Boole, is a branch of mathematics dealing with variables that can only have
              two possible states: True (1) or False (0). These states are often represented as ‘on/off’, ‘high/low voltage’, ‘yes/no’,
              or ‘activated/deactivated’ in digital systems. Boolean operators are the rules for combining these true/false values to
              produce a single true/false result.

              82
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="85"><![CDATA[Let’s understand the three primary Boolean operators: AND, OR, and NOT.

                 The Boolean Operators and Their Meaning:
                 To understand these operators, we often use truth tables, which show all possible input combinations and the resulting
                 output.

                 AND Operator
                    Meaning: The AND operator checks if all conditions connected by it are True. The overall result is True ONLY IF all
                 u
                    input conditions are True. If even one input condition is False, the output will be False.
                    Symbol: Often represented by ‘^’ (logical AND), ‘•’ (multiplication dot), or simply by no symbol between variables
                 u
                    (like AB). In programming languages, it is usually written as && (in C, C++, Java) or and (in Python).
                    Truth Table:
                 u
                                             Input A              Input B            A AND B
                                       False (0)            False (0)           False (0)

                                       False (0)            True (1)            False (0)
                                       True (1)             False (0)           False (0)
                                       True (1)             True (1)            True (1)

                    Analogy: Think of needing both a specific key and a password to open a locked door. If you have only the key, or only
                 u
                    the password, or neither, you cannot open the door. You need both (or all) conditions to be met.
                 OR Operator

                    Meaning: The OR operator checks if at least one of the conditions connected by it is True. The overall result is True IF
                 u
                    any of the input conditions is True. The output is False ONLY IF all input conditions are False.
                    Symbol: Often represented by ‘v’ (logical OR), ‘+’ (addition sign), or ‘||’ or or in programming.
                 u
                    Truth Table:
                 u
                                             Input A              Input B             A OR B

                                       False (0)            False (0)           False (0)
                                       False (0)            True (1)            True (1)

                                       True (1)             False (0)           True (1)
                                       True (1)             True (1)            True (1)

                    Analogy: Think of a shop that accepts payment by cash OR credit card. If you have cash, you can pay. If you have a
                 u
                    credit card, you can pay. If you have both, you can still pay. You can only NOT pay if you have neither.
                 NOT Operator
                    Meaning: The NOT operator inverts the logical state of a single condition. If the input is True, the output is False. If the
                 u
                    input is False, the output is True.
                    Symbol: Often represented by ‘¬’ (logical NOT), a bar over the variable (A), or ‘!’ or not in programming.
                 u
                    Truth Table:
                 u
                                                        Input A              Not A

                                                 False (0)             True (1)
                                                 True (1)              False (0)

                    Analogy: If the traffic light is NOT green, then it must be red or yellow.
                 u
                                                                                                                       83
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="86"><![CDATA[Robot Boys Wacky Adventure
                                    Inspired by the Indian animated show “ViR: The Robot Boy,” a robot with superhero powers
                                    tries to help his friends but accidentally triggers chaos—starting a pie fight with his built-in
                                    slingshot. His creator learns to program restraint features before any “heroic rescue.”
               actual funny
                  incidents         Learning: Powers need control, and creativity in robotics should be balanced with safety.


              Applications of Boolean Operators in Robotics for Decision-Making

              Robots use Boolean operators extensively to process sensor inputs, make logical decisions, and control their actions.
              Sensor readings are often converted into Boolean (True/False) states, which are then combined using these operators.

              Obstacle Avoidance in Mobile Robots

                  Scenario: A mobile robot navigating a factory floor in Kota, delivering parts. It has multiple proximity sensors (infrared
              u
                  or ultrasonic) around its body.
                  Boolean Logic:
              u
                  ∑ Let Sensor_Front be True if an obstacle is detected in front.

                  ∑ Let Sensor_Left be True if an obstacle is detected on the left.

                  ∑ Let Sensor_Right be True if an obstacle is detected on the right.

                  Decision Rule: If (Sensor_Front IS True) AND (NOT Sensor_Left IS True) THEN Turn_Right.
              u
                  ∑   Explanation: The robot will turn right only if there’s an obstacle directly in front and there’s no obstacle immediately

                    to its left (indicating a clear path to turn).
                  Another Decision Rule: If (Sensor_Front IS True) OR (Sensor_Left IS True) OR (Sensor_Right IS True) THEN Stop_
              u
                  Movement.
                  ∑   Explanation: The robot will stop if an obstacle is detected by any of its front, left, or right sensors, ensuring it doesn’t

                    collide from any side.

              Gripper Control for Picking Objects
                  Scenario: A robotic arm in an assembly line picking up a specific component. It has a vision sensor and a touch
              u
                  sensor on its gripper.
                  Boolean Logic:
              u
                  ∑ Let Object_Detected_By_Vision be True if the camera identifies the correct object.

                  ∑ Let Gripper_Contact be True if the touch sensor on the gripper detects contact.

                  Decision Rule: If (Object_Detected_By_Vision IS True) AND (NOT Gripper_Contact IS True) THEN Close_Gripper.
              u
                  ∑   Explanation: The robot will close its gripper only if it ‘sees’ the correct object and the gripper is not yet in contact

                    with anything (meaning it’s open and ready to grab).
                  Another Decision Rule: If (Gripper_Contact IS True) AND (Object_Detected_By_Vision IS True) THEN Lift_Object.
              u
                  ∑   Explanation: The robot will lift the object only if it has successfully made contact and the vision system confirms it’s

                    the correct object.

              Safety Protocols for Industrial Robots
                  Scenario: A large industrial  robotic  arm operating  in a factory  in Kota.  It has safety  fences and emergency
              u
                  stop buttons.





              84
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="87"><![CDATA[Boolean Logic:
                 u
                    ∑ Let Safety_Fence_Breached be True if an intruder breaks the safety light barrier.

                    ∑ Let Emergency_Button_Pressed be True if a human presses an emergency stop button.

                    Decision Rule: If (Safety_Fence_Breached  IS True) OR (Emergency_Button_Pressed  IS True) THEN Initiate_
                 u
                    Emergency_Stop.
                    ∑   Explanation: The robot will immediately initiate an emergency stop if either the safety fence is breached or the

                       emergency stop button is pressed, prioritising human safety.
                 Autonomous Navigation in Self-Driving Cars

                 u   Scenario: A self-driving car navigating a street in Kota. It uses various sensors to understand its environment.
                    Boolean Logic:
                 u
                    ∑ Let Traffic_Light_Red be True if the camera detects a red traffic light.

                    ∑ Let Pedestrian_Crossing be True if the LIDAR or camera detects a pedestrian in the crosswalk.

                    ∑ Let Road_Clear be True if no obstacles are detected ahead.

                 u   Decision Rule: If (Traffic_Light_Red IS True) OR (Pedestrian_Crossing IS True) THEN Apply_Brakes.
                    ∑ Explanation: The car will apply brakes if it detects a red light or if a pedestrian is crossing, ensuring safety.

                 u   Another Decision Rule: If (Traffic_Light_Red IS NOT True) AND (Road_Clear IS True) THEN Proceed.
                    ∑ Explanation: The car will proceed only if the traffic light is not red (i.e., green or yellow) and the road ahead is clear.

                 These  examples demonstrate how simple  Boolean  operators,  when combined,  form the  logical  backbone  of robot
                 intelligence. They allow robots to process multiple pieces of information from their sensors and execute appropriate,
                 complex behaviours to achieve their tasks accurately, efficiently, and safely in dynamic environments like our very own
                 Kota. Understanding these fundamental logical building blocks is crucial for anyone aspiring to program or design robots.

                                                     Robots Have Been Around Longer Than You Think

                                      Although “robots” feel futuristic, the concept dates back thousands of years. In ancient
                                   Greece, an engineer named Hero of Alexandria designed mechanical birds and puppets that
                      BRAINY         moved with steam power. Fast forward to the 15th century, Leonardo da Vinci sketched a
                       FACT         robotic knight that could sit, wave its arms, and even move its head! The word “robot” itself
                                   was first introduced in 1921 in a Czech play called R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots). Today’s
                                   AI-driven robots are built on centuries of curiosity, proving that humanity has always dreamt
                                                                  of intelligent machines.


                 Microcontroller/Single Board Computer Architecture: The Robot’s Brain Unveiled

                 Every intelligent robot, whether it’s a simple line-follower or a complex autonomous vehicle navigating the bustling streets
                 of Delhi, relies on a central processing unit to execute its programs, interpret sensor data, make decisions using logic (like
                 Boolean operators), and send commands to its actuators. This ‘brain’ is typically either a Microcontroller or a Single
                 Board Computer. Understanding their internal architecture, often visualised through block diagrams, helps us grasp how
                 these devices function as the core of a robot’s intelligence.

                 What is a Microcontroller?
                 A Microcontroller is essentially a small, compact computer chip designed to perform specific control tasks. It integrates
                 all the essential components of a computer (processor, memory, and input/output peripherals) onto a single integrated
                 circuit (a ‘chip’). Think of it as a highly specialised, miniature computer on a chip, specifically built for controlling
                 electronic devices.




                                                                                                                       85
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="88"><![CDATA[21 st
                    VIDEO SESSION                                                               Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                 Skills
                    Scan the QR code or visit the following link to watch the video:
                    What is a Microcontroller and how does it work? Robotics for Beginners Tutorial

                    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t68MG-kVDCU
                    After watching the video, answer the following questions:
                    1.  How do microcontrollers function in everyday devices?



                    2.  Name and explain the three main components of a microcontroller.




              What is a Single Board Computer (SBC)?

              A Single Board Computer is a complete computer built on a single circuit board. Unlike a microcontroller, it’s designed to
              be a general-purpose computer capable of running full operating systems (like Linux) and handling more complex tasks,
              often with more processing power, memory, and connectivity options. They are like a desktop computer condensed onto
              a small board.

              Understanding the Block Diagram and Architecture
              Both  microcontrollers  and  single  board  computers  share common  fundamental  architectural  blocks,  though  their
              complexity and capabilities vary significantly. Let’s explore these blocks:

              Central Processing Unit (CPU) / Processor
              Description: This is the ‘brain’ of the microcontroller or single board computer. It’s responsible for executing the program
              instructions, performing arithmetic calculations (like addition, subtraction), logical operations (like AND, OR, NOT), and
              managing the flow of data.
              Working Principle: The Central Processing Unit continuously fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and then
              executes them step-by-step.
              Difference: Microcontrollers typically have simpler, lower-power Central Processing Units optimised for control tasks.
              Single Board Computers  have much more  powerful Central Processing  Units, often with multiple  processing  cores,
              capable of handling demanding computations like image processing for computer vision or running complex Artificial
              Intelligence algorithms.
              Analogy: The Central Processing Unit is like the main decision-making part of your own brain.

              Memory
              Description: Memory is where the microcontroller or single board computer stores programs (instructions) and data.
              There are typically different types of memory for different purposes.
              Types:
              Program Memory (Flash Memory / Read-Only Memory - ROM): This is where the actual program (the set of
              instructions you write for the robot) is permanently stored. It retains data even when the power is off, similar to your
              computer’s hard drive.
              Data Memory (Random Access Memory - RAM): This is where the microcontroller stores temporary data that it needs
              to access and modify quickly while the program is running. This data is lost when the power is turned off. Examples include
              sensor readings, intermediate calculation results, or variable values.

              86
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="89"><![CDATA[Difference: Microcontrollers have relatively small amounts of both program and data memory, just enough for their
                 specific control tasks. Single Board Computers have much larger amounts of both, often gigabytes of Random Access
                 Memory and expandable storage for their operating system and applications.
                 Analogy: Program memory is like a textbook or permanent notes, while data memory is like a whiteboard where you
                 quickly jot down and erase information during problem-solving.
                 Input/Output (I/O) Peripherals / Interfaces

                 Description: These  are the  channels through which the  microcontroller  or single  board  computer  interacts  with the
                 outside world – connecting to sensors (inputs) and controlling actuators (outputs). They are crucial for communication
                 with other components.
                 Types:
                 Digital Input/Output Pins: These pins can be configured as either inputs (to read simple ON/OFF signals from
                 switches, buttons, or basic sensors) or outputs (to turn Light Emitting Diodes on/off, control relays, or send simple
                 ON/OFF commands).
                 Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs): Sensors often produce analog signals (like varying voltage based on light intensity
                 or temperature). Analog to Digital Converters convert these continuous analog signals into digital numbers that the
                 Central Processing Unit can understand and process.
                 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Outputs: Used to control the speed of Direct Current motors or the position of servo
                 motors. Pulse Width Modulation creates a series of pulses where the “on” time varies, effectively controlling the average
                 power supplied.
                 Communication Interfaces (UART, I2C, SPI, CAN, USB, Ethernet, Wi-Fi): These are specialised hardware modules
                 that implement the communication protocols we discussed earlier (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter,
                 Inter-Integrated Circuit, Serial Peripheral Interface, Controller Area Network). They allow the microcontroller/Single
                 Board Computer to exchange data with sensors, motor drivers, other microcontrollers, or even external computers.

                 Timers/Counters: Used for precise timing, scheduling events, measuring durations, or generating specific frequencies.
                 Difference: Microcontrollers often have a wide array of basic Input/Output peripherals optimised for real-time control.
                 Single Board Computers have fewer direct hardware control pins but offer more advanced communication interfaces
                 (like multiple Universal Serial Bus ports, Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) for networking and connecting to complex peripherals.

                 Analogy: These  are like  your  senses  (reading  input)  and  your  hands/voice  (producing  output),  along  with  the
                 communication pathways to talk to others.
                 Clock Unit / Oscillator
                 Description: This unit  generates  the  timing  signals  (clock  pulses)  that  synchronise  all the  operations  within  the
                 microcontroller or single board computer. Every instruction execution and data transfer happens in sync with these clock
                 pulses.
                 Working Principle: It’s like a metronome for the entire system, ensuring that all internal operations happen in a precisely
                 timed sequence. The speed of this clock (measured in megahertz - MHz) determines how fast the Central Processing Unit
                 can execute instructions.
                 Analogy: The clock unit is like the conductor of an orchestra, ensuring everyone plays in rhythm.

                 Power Management Unit
                 Description: This block manages the power supply to the different components of the microcontroller or single board
                 computer. It regulates voltage, distributes power efficiently, and often includes features for low-power modes to conserve
                 battery life.
                 Analogy: This is like the power distribution system in a building, ensuring each part gets the right amount of electricity.



                                                                                                                       87
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="90"><![CDATA[Block Diagram Representation
              Let’s visualise these components in a simplified block diagram (imagine drawing boxes connected by lines):


                           Servo motor 2
                              (joint 2)                    Power supply




                           Servo motor 3                                                    DC Motor driver
                              (joint 3)
                                                             Embedded
                                                             controller                        DC Motor 1
                           Servo motor 4                                                        (joint 1)
                              (joint 4)



                                                            Companion                           Bi-phase
                           Servo motor 5                     computer
                             (gripper)                                                          encoder


              Key Differences in Application

              Microcontrollers
                  Purpose: Best suited for dedicated, real-time control tasks that are repetitive and require precise timing.
              u
                  Operating System: Usually run simple “bare-metal” code (no operating system) or a very lightweight Real-Time
              u
                  Operating System.

              u   Power Consumption: Very low.
                  Complexity: Simpler to program for specific tasks, but harder for complex software.
              u
                  Example Applications: Controlling a robot arm’s joint angles, managing the movement of a robotic vacuum cleaner,
              u
                  controlling Light Emitting Diode displays, reading basic sensor data.
              Single Board Computers
                  Purpose: Used when a robot needs more ‘intelligence’, such as running complex Artificial Intelligence algorithms,
              u
                  processing  large amounts  of sensor data  (like  high-resolution  camera  feeds), or needing  to  communicate  over
                  networks.
                  Operating System: Typically run a full-fledged operating system (like different versions of Linux).
              u
              u   Power Consumption: Higher than microcontrollers.
                  Complexity: More complex to set up initially (like setting up a computer), but easier for software development due
              u
                  to rich libraries and development environments.
                  Example Applications: The main brain of a self-driving car (processing camera and LIDAR data, running navigation
              u
                  AI), controlling  a  humanoid  robot  that  needs  to  understand  speech,  sophisticated  drones  performing  complex
                  mapping, a robot needing internet connectivity.
              In conclusion, the architecture of microcontrollers and single board computers forms the very foundation of robotic
              intelligence. By understanding how their Central Processing Units, various types of memory, and diverse Input/Output
              peripherals work together, along with their distinct roles, we can appreciate how these compact ‘brains’ enable robots
              to perceive, process, decide, and act, bringing smart automation to life in our world, from simple gadgets to complex
              autonomous systems in places like Delhi.



              88
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="91"><![CDATA[The First Industrial Robot Changed Manufacturing Forever

                                       The world’s first true industrial robot, called Unimate, was introduced in 1961. It was
                                      designed to handle molten metal in a General Motors factory—a job too dangerous for
                      BRAINY         humans. Instead of being seen as a futuristic gadget, Unimate became a workhorse that
                       FACT          revolutionised manufacturing. Its success paved the way for today’s robotic arms used in
                                    car factories, electronics assembly, and even in delicate surgeries. What’s mind-blowing is
                                    that many modern industrial robots still follow Unimate’s basic design principles, only now
                                                     enhanced with AI, sensors, and incredible precision.



                 Programming Fundamentals: Giving the Robot its Instructions

                 A robot’s hardware provides its body, senses, and processing power, but it’s the software or program that gives it life and
                 intelligence. Programming is the process of writing a set of instructions that tell the robot exactly what to do, step by step,
                 to achieve a desired task. Just as you follow a recipe to cook a dish, a robot follows a program to perform its functions.

                 Understanding how to structure these instructions, represent them, and write them in a language the robot’s brain
                 comprehends is fundamental.

                 Algorithms: The Step-by-Step Plan

                 Description
                 An Algorithm is a detailed, step-by-step procedure or a set of rules for solving a specific problem or accomplishing
                 a specific  task.  It’s a precise  blueprint  for how to  get  something  done.  Algorithms  are independent  of any specific
                 programming language; they focus on the logic and sequence of operations.
                 Characteristics
                    Unambiguous: Each step must be clear and leave no room for misinterpretation.
                 u
                    Finite: It must terminate after a finite number of steps.
                 u
                    Effective: Each step must be simple enough to be carried out.
                 u
                    Input/Output: It must take zero or more inputs and produce one or more outputs.
                 u
                 Application in Robotics
                 Every  robotic behaviour,  from turning  on a motor  to  navigating  a complex  environment,  is  based  on an underlying
                 algorithm.
                 Example Algorithm (for a line-follower robot)

                 1.  Start.
                 2.  Read sensor data from the left and right line-detection sensors.
                 3.  IF (left sensor detects line AND right sensor detects line) THEN (move forward).
                 4.  ELSE IF (left sensor detects line AND right sensor does NOT detect line) THEN (turn left slightly).
                 5.  ELSE IF (left sensor does NOT detect line AND right sensor detects line) THEN (turn right slightly).
                 6.  ELSE IF (left sensor does NOT detect line AND right sensor does NOT detect line) THEN (stop or search for line).
                 7.  Repeat from step 2.
                 8.  End.
                 Flowcharts: Visualising the Algorithm

                 Description
                 A Flowchart is a graphical or diagrammatic representation of an algorithm or a process. It uses standard symbols to
                 depict different types of operations, decisions, and data flow, connected by arrows indicating the sequence.
                                                                                                                       89
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="92"><![CDATA[Purpose
              Flowcharts make algorithms easier to understand, analyse, and communicate, especially for complex processes. They
              provide a visual overview of the program’s logic.
              Common Symbols

                  Oval/Terminal: Represents the start or end of a program.
              u
                  Rectangle/Process: Represents a specific action or process (e.g., “Move Forward,” “Read Sensor”).
              u
                  Diamond/Decision: Represents a point where a decision is made (a question with “Yes/No” or “True/False” answers).
              u
                  Parallelogram/Input/Output: Represents data input or output operations.
              u
                  Arrows/Flowlines: Show the direction of the process flow.
              u
              Example


                                                      Start



                                                Task assigned to the          Self-localisation
                                                     Robot


                                               NI Board process and         Position Refinement
                                                 Controller signal
                                                                            Communication and
                                                                                Evaluation

                                                    Sensors       Yes
                                                     Signal?               Problem Identification

                                        No
                                                      No

                                                Continue Searching




                                                      Task
                                                   Completed?



                                                      Yes

                                                      End


              Application in Robotics
              Before writing actual code, robotic engineers often draw flowcharts to design the robot’s behaviour logic.

              Example Flowchart Segment (for the line-follower)
                  (Start - Oval) ->
              u
                  (Read Sensors - Parallelogram) ->
              u
              u   (Left Sensor ON AND Right Sensor ON? - Diamond) ->
                  ∑  If Yes -> (Move Forward - Rectangle) -> Loop back to “Read Sensors”
                  ∑  If No -> (Left Sensor ON AND Right Sensor OFF? - Diamond) ->
                       If Yes -> (Turn Left - Rectangle) -> Loop back to “Read Sensors”
                    §
                       If No -> ... and so on.
                    §
              90
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="93"><![CDATA[Pseudocode: A Bridge to Programming Languages
                 Description

                 Pseudocode is an informal, high-level description of an algorithm’s operating principle. It uses plain language
                 combined with elements of programming language structures (like IF-THEN-ELSE, WHILE, FOR loops) but is not tied to
                 any specific syntax.

                 Purpose

                 It’s a step between a flowchart (visual) and actual code. It allows programmers to plan the logic in a human-readable
                 way before worrying about the strict rules of a programming language.

                 Characteristics
                    Not Executable: Cannot be directly run by a computer.
                 u
                    Readable: Easy for humans to understand.
                 u
                    Structured: Uses common programming constructs.
                 u
                 Application in Robotics
                 Used by programming teams (like those developing autonomous vehicles in Delhi) to outline complex behaviours before
                 writing the code.
                 Example Pseudocode (for the line-follower)





























                                                             Robots Can Now  See  and  Feel

                                     Modern robots aren’t just moving arms—they have computer vision to “see” and tactile
                      BRAINY        sensors to “feel.” For example, robots in warehouses like those at Amazon can identify and
                       FACT         pick items with cameras and AI algorithms. Advanced robots even sense pressure, texture,
                                     and temperature, making them capable of handling delicate tasks like folding laundry or
                                    assisting in surgery. This sensory ability allows robots to operate in unpredictable real-world
                                       environments, a massive leap from older robots that only followed fixed instructions.


                 Microcontroller / Single Board Computer Programming

                 Description
                 This refers to the process of writing actual computer code that can be loaded onto and executed by a microcontroller or
                 a Single Board Computer to control the robot.
                                                                                                                       91
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="94"><![CDATA[Difference in Approach
                  Microcontroller Programming: Often involves direct interaction with the hardware registers and memory.
              u
                  Programs are typically written in lower-level languages like C or Assembly, or higher-level languages specific to the
                  platform (like Arduino C++). The code is compiled into a small binary file and “flashed” onto the microcontroller’s
                  program memory.
                  Single Board Computer Programming: Involves writing programs that run on an operating system (like Linux).
              u
                  This allows for using higher-level languages like Python, C++, or Java, and leveraging powerful libraries for Artificial
                  Intelligence, computer vision, and networking. The development environment is often more complex but offers greater
                  flexibility and computing power.
              Application in Robotics
                  Microcontrollers: Ideal for  real-time,  low-level  control (e.g., precise  motor  control, reading  raw  sensor data,
              u
                  implementing PID loops for individual joints).
                  Single Board Computers: Ideal for high-level decision-making, running complex Artificial Intelligence algorithms
              u
                  (e.g., object recognition from camera feeds, global path planning, human-robot interaction using natural language
                  processing), and coordinating multiple subsystems. Many advanced robots combine both: an Single Board Computer
                  for high-level intelligence and microcontrollers for low-level hardware control.


                                    Robot Mistakes Human for a Button
                                    During a tech camp in Europe, a humanoid robot tried to learn “button-pressing.” When a
                                    volunteer wore a shirt with shiny buttons, the robot kept poking his stomach, thinking it was a
                                    “power switch!” Laughter filled the room, and engineers updated its “button image database.”
               actual funny
                  incidents         Learning: Robots need visual training, or they’ll confuse clothes with controls.



              Basic Embedded C Programming

              Description
              Embedded C programming refers to writing code in the C programming language specifically for embedded systems,
              which  are computer  systems designed  for  a dedicated  function  within a larger  mechanical  or electrical  system.
              Microcontrollers are prime examples of embedded systems. C is a very popular choice for embedded programming due
              to its efficiency, direct hardware access capabilities, and wide availability of compilers for various microcontrollers.
              Why C for Robotics/Embedded Systems?

                  Close to Hardware: C  allows programmers  to  directly  manipulate  hardware resources  (like  Input/Output  pins,
              u
                  timers, communication interfaces) through registers, giving fine-grained control.
                  Efficiency: C  code  can be  compiled  into  very compact  and fast executable  programs, which is  crucial  for
              u
                  microcontrollers with limited memory and processing power.
                  Portability: While hardware-specific aspects exist, core C code can often be adapted for different microcontroller
              u
                  architectures.
                  Memory Management: C provides tools for efficient memory management.
              u
              Key Concepts in Embedded C
                  Variables and Data Types: Defining storage for numbers, characters, etc.
              u
                  Operators: Arithmetic, relational, logical (Boolean) operators.
              u
                  Control Flow Statements: if-else, for loops, while loops (to implement algorithms).
              u
                  Functions: Breaking down a program into smaller, reusable blocks of code.
              u

              92
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="95"><![CDATA[Bitwise Operations: Directly manipulating individual bits within registers to control hardware features (e.g., turning
                 u
                    a specific pin on/off).
                    Pointers: Directly accessing memory locations, a powerful but advanced feature.
                 u
                 Example (Basic Embedded C for a LED)























                 This simple code would make a Light Emitting Diode connected to Port 1 of a microcontroller blink on and off repeatedly.

                 Interrupts: Responding to Events Immediately

                 Description

                 An interrupt is a signal that temporarily stops the Central Processing Unit’s current main program execution to handle a
                 higher-priority event. Once the event is handled (by an Interrupt Service Routine), the Central Processing Unit returns to
                 the point where it left off in the main program.

                 Purpose
                 This is crucial for real-time systems like robots, where immediate responses to external events (like a sensor detecting
                 an obstacle or a button being pressed) are necessary, without having to constantly check for them in the main program
                 (which is inefficient).

                 How it Works
                    An external event (e.g., a signal from a touch sensor, a timer reaching a specific count) triggers an interrupt.
                 u
                    The Central Processing Unit immediately suspends its current task.
                 u
                    It jumps to  a special  function  called the  Interrupt  Service Routine, which contains  the code  to  handle that
                 u
                    specific event.
                    After the Interrupt Service Routine finishes, the Central Processing Unit returns to execute the instruction it was on
                 u
                    before the interrupt occurred.
                 Application in Robotics

                    Emergency Stop: If an emergency stop button is pressed, an interrupt can immediately halt all robot movement,
                 u
                    regardless of what the main program was doing.
                    Sensor Event Handling: When a proximity sensor detects an object, an interrupt can trigger immediate obstacle
                 u
                    avoidance routines.
                    Motor Control: For precise motor control, encoders often generate interrupts for every small rotation, allowing the
                 u
                    microcontroller to accurately track the motor’s position and speed in real-time.
                    Communication: Receiving data through Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter or Inter-Integrated Circuit
                 u
                    can often trigger interrupts when new data arrives, so the microcontroller doesn’t have to constantly check for it.


                                                                                                                       93
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="96"><![CDATA[Timers: Keeping Track of Time

              Description
              Timers are specialised hardware components within microcontrollers and Single Board Computers that count pulses at
              a fixed frequency. They are like internal stopwatches or alarm clocks for the system.

              Purpose
              Timers are essential for precise time-based operations and scheduling in embedded systems.

              Applications in Robotics
                  Generating Delays: Creating accurate time delays in a program (e.g., waiting 100 milliseconds before turning on a
              u
                  motor).
                  Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Generation: Generating the precise pulses needed to control the speed of Direct
              u
                  Current motors or the position of servo motors.
                  Event Scheduling: Triggering specific tasks at regular intervals (e.g., reading sensors every 50 milliseconds, updating
              u
                  motor commands every 10 milliseconds).
                  Measuring Time: Measuring the duration of events (e.g., the time of flight for an ultrasonic sensor echo).
              u
                  Watchdog Timers: A special type of timer that resets the microcontroller if the main program gets stuck (e.g., due to
              u
                  a software error), ensuring the robot doesn’t freeze indefinitely.
              In conclusion, programming is the intelligence that breathes life into robotic hardware. From the logical blueprints of
              algorithms, visualised in flowcharts and articulated in pseudocode, to the actual code written in languages like Embedded
              C, every instruction is meticulously crafted. The ability to handle immediate events through interrupts and to manage
              time precisely using timers are crucial elements that ensure robots in places like Delhi can perform their tasks accurately,
              efficiently, and reliably, truly integrating hardware with intelligent behaviour.


                                                       AI Learns Like the Human Brain—Sort Of
                                   Artificial Intelligence uses something called Neural Networks, which are loosely inspired
                                 by the human brain’s neurons. Just like our brain learns patterns—like recognizing your best
                    BRAINY
                     FACT       friend’s face in a crowd—AI systems learn by processing data repeatedly until they can predict
                                outcomes. However, AI isn’t as flexible as our brains. A human can learn cycling and later apply
                                    balance skills to surfing, but AI usually needs separate training for each task. Still, the
                                  brain-inspired design makes AI one of the most powerful problem-solving tools in history.




                   REBOOT

                  Answer the following questions:

                  1.  Why is Boolean logic considered the foundation of robotics computing?
                  2.  Can an algorithm be written in plain English? Why or why not?
                  3.  Why do we use pseudocode before actual programming?
                  4.  When would you choose Arduino instead of Raspberry Pi?
                  5.  What shape is used in flowcharts to show decision-making?









              94
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="97"><![CDATA[Debugging and Testing: Ensuring Correct and Efficient Program Execution

                 Imagine building a complex machine like a robot. Even with the best design and programming, it’s almost guaranteed
                 that things won’t work perfectly the first time. There will be errors – in the code, in the wiring, in the sensor readings, or
                 in the mechanical assembly. This is where Debugging and Testing come into play. These are systematic processes to
                 find, analyse, and fix problems (bugs) in the robot’s software and hardware, and then to verify that the robot functions
                 correctly, efficiently, and safely under various conditions.

                 Debugging: The Art of Finding and Fixing Bugs
                 Debugging is the process of identifying, analysing, and removing errors or “bugs” from a computer program or electronic
                 hardware. A “bug” is simply anything that causes the robot to behave unexpectedly or incorrectly.

                 Understanding Types of Bugs
                    Syntax Errors: These are errors in the grammar or rules of the programming language (e.g., a missing semicolon in
                 u
                    C, a misspelled keyword). The compiler (the software that translates your code into machine-readable instructions)
                    usually catches these, preventing the program from even running.
                    Logic Errors: These are the trickiest bugs. The program runs, but it doesn’t do what you intended it to do. For example,
                 u
                    a robot might move forward when it should turn, or it might collide with an object because its obstacle avoidance
                    logic is flawed.
                    Runtime Errors: These occur while the program is running, often due to unexpected conditions (e.g., trying to divide
                 u
                    by zero, accessing memory that doesn’t belong to the program).
                    Hardware-Software Interaction Bugs: These are common in robotics, where the code expects a certain signal from
                 u
                    a sensor, but the sensor isn’t wired correctly, or the motor doesn’t respond as expected to a command.

                 Common Debugging Techniques
                    Print Statements/Serial Monitoring: The simplest technique. Programmers insert special commands into their
                 u
                    code to print out the values of variables, sensor readings, or messages about which part of the code is being
                    executed. This data can be viewed on a computer connected via Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter
                    (UART) (serial port).
                    ∑   Example: In a robot struggling with navigation, you might print: “Current X position: 1.5, Y position: 2.3”, “Distance
                       to obstacle: 15cm”, “Motor speed Left: 100, Right: 90”. This helps identify where the robot’s internal understanding
                       differs from reality.
                    Debugging Tools (Debuggers): More sophisticated software tools that allow programmers to:
                 u
                    ∑  Step Through Code: Execute the program one line at a time to observe exactly what’s happening.
                    ∑  Set Breakpoints: Pause the program’s execution at specific lines of code to inspect the state of variables.
                    ∑  Inspect Variables: View the values of all variables in real-time as the program runs.

                    ∑  Memory Inspection: Look at the raw data stored in the robot’s memory.
                    ∑   Example: Using a debugger, a programmer can pause a robot’s path planning algorithm at a specific point and
                       check if the calculated path coordinates are correct before the robot attempts to move.
                    Hardware Debuggers/Programmers: For microcontrollers, specialized hardware tools (like JTAG or SWD debuggers)
                 u
                    connect directly to the chip. They allow for much deeper inspection and control over the microcontroller’s internal state.

                 u   Logging: Saving sensor data, motor commands, and internal states to a file (e.g., on an SD card for Single Board
                    Computers) for later analysis. This is crucial for autonomous robots operating in the field where real-time monitoring
                    isn’t always possible.
                    Visualisation Tools: For complex robots (like self-driving cars), special software allows developers to visualise
                 u
                    sensor data (e.g., a 3D point cloud from LIDAR, camera feeds with detected objects), internal maps, and planned
                    trajectories on a computer screen.

                                                                                                                       95
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="98"><![CDATA[∑   Example: If an autonomous vehicle in Delhi is repeatedly slowing down at a specific intersection, engineers
                    can use logged data and visualisation tools to see if a sensor is giving a false positive obstacle reading, or if the
                    perception algorithm is misinterpreting the environment.
                  Trial and Error: Sometimes, especially for subtle mechanical or interaction bugs, simple trial-and-error
              u
                  adjustments (e.g., tweaking a Proportional-Integral-Derivative gain, adjusting a sensor mounting angle) are part
                  of the debugging process.

              Testing: Verifying Correct and Efficient Program Execution
              Testing is the process of evaluating a robot’s performance to ensure it meets its design specifications, performs correctly
              under various conditions, and operates reliably and safely. It’s about systematically validating the robot’s capabilities.
              Importance of Testing
                  Verification: Confirms that the robot behaves as expected according to its design.
              u
                  Validation: Ensures the robot meets the user’s actual needs and solves the problem it was designed for.
              u
                  Reliability: Identifies conditions under which the robot might fail, leading to more robust designs.
              u
                  Safety: Crucial for identifying potential hazards and ensuring the robot operates without causing harm to itself, other
              u
                  equipment, or humans.
                  Performance  Measurement: Quantifies  metrics  like  speed,  accuracy,  power consumption,  and operational
              u
                  endurance.
              Types of Testing in Robotics
                  Unit Testing:
              u
                  ∑   Description: Testing individual small components or functions of the robot’s software or hardware in isolation
                    (e.g., testing if a single motor spins correctly, if a specific sensor gives accurate readings, or if a particular software
                    function calculates values correctly).
                  ∑  Purpose: To ensure that each building block works as intended before integration.
                  Integration Testing:
              u
                  ∑   Description: Testing  how different components  and subsystems  work together  (e.g., testing  if the  sensor
                    communicates correctly with the microcontroller, and if the microcontroller can accurately control the motor
                    based on sensor input).
                  ∑  Purpose: To identify issues that arise when components interact.
                  System Testing (End-to-End Testing):
              u
                  ∑   Description: Testing the complete, integrated robot as a whole system to verify all functionalities according to the
                    original requirements. This might involve running the robot through its entire intended task sequence.
                  ∑  Purpose: To ensure the entire robotic system meets all specifications.
                  ∑   Example: For a delivery robot, system testing would involve making it autonomously navigate a test environment,
                    pick up a package, deliver it, and return to its charging station, mimicking a real delivery in Delhi.
                  Regression Testing:
              u
                  ∑   Description: After fixing a bug or adding a new feature, re-running previous tests to ensure that the changes
                    haven’t introduced new bugs or broken existing functionalities.
                  ∑  Purpose: To maintain code stability and prevent new errors.
                  Performance Testing:
              u
                  ∑   Description: Measuring the robot’s speed, accuracy, power consumption, response time, and other performance
                    metrics under various loads and conditions.
                  ∑  Purpose: To ensure the robot meets performance benchmarks.
                  Stress Testing:
              u
                  ∑   Description: Testing the robot under extreme or adverse conditions (e.g., maximum load, extreme temperatures,
                    noisy environments, continuous operation for long durations) to find its breaking points.
                  ∑  Purpose: To evaluate robustness and identify failure modes.

              96
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="99"><![CDATA[Safety Testing:
                 u
                    ∑  Description: Specifically testing safety mechanisms (e.g., emergency stops, collision avoidance, force limits in
                    collaborative robots) to ensure they activate correctly and prevent harm.
                    ∑  Purpose: Crucial for any robot that interacts with humans or operates in sensitive environments.
                    Simulations:
                 u
                    ∑   Description: Running  the robot’s  software in a virtual environment (a simulator)  that  mimics the real  world.
                       This allows for testing complex scenarios, especially dangerous or time-consuming ones, without risking physical
                       damage to the robot or its environment.
                    ∑   Purpose: Rapid  prototyping,  testing  rare  events, training  Artificial  Intelligence  algorithms,  and performing
                       regression tests efficiently.

                 Iterative Process
                 Debugging and testing are not one-time events; they are continuous and iterative processes throughout the entire robot
                 development lifecycle. Finding a bug during testing leads to debugging, which leads to a fix, which then requires more
                 testing to ensure the fix worked and didn’t introduce new problems. This cycle repeats until the robot is stable, reliable,
                 and meets all its requirements.

                 In essence, debugging and testing are the final crucial hurdles that transform a collection of components and lines of code
                 into a functional, reliable, and safe robotic system. They are the quality control steps that ensure the robot, whether it’s
                 navigating the bylanes of Delhi or operating in an industrial plant, performs its tasks correctly and efficiently, ultimately
                 building trust in its autonomous capabilities.


                                              AI Can Beat Humans in Games but Struggles with Common Sense
                                            AI systems like Deep Blue (chess), AlphaGo (Go), and OpenAI s systems
                                   (video games like Dota 2) have beaten the world’s best human players. These victories prove
                      BRAINY         how powerful AI can be in analysing millions of possible moves and strategies. However,
                       FACT        while AI can dominate in structured environments like games, it often fails in simple real-world
                                         reasoning. For example, an AI might “know” millions of game strategies but not
                                       understand that ice cream melts in the sun. That’s the current gap between artificial
                                                                 and human intelligence.







                                                          ROBOT DYNAMICS

                      Computing = the brain of robotics.
                      Boolean logic = based on true (1) and false (0).
                      Algorithms are step-by-step instructions to solve problems.
                      Flowcharts = graphical representation of algorithms.

                      Pseudocode = plain-language version of program logic.
                      Microcontrollers (Arduino) control sensors/actuators in real-time.
                      Single Board Computers (Raspberry Pi) handle complex tasks, multitasking, AI.
                      Controllers process input   logic   output.
                      Decision-making in robotics is rooted in Boolean operations.

                      Computing gives robots intelligence and autonomy.




                                                                                                                       97
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="100"><![CDATA[RESEARCH ACTIVITY                                                     21 st
                                                                                    Century    #Coding & Computational Thinking
                                                                                     Skills
               These three activities combine logic (Boolean), critical comparison (microcontroller vs SBC), and hands-on
               programming (algorithm to code)—ensuring students learn theory, application, and practice.
               1.  Boolean Logic in Real Life and Robotics
                   ∑   Task: Identify three real-life situations where Boolean logic (AND, OR, NOT) applies (e.g., school bell system,
                       traffic signals, ATM withdrawal conditions). Then, design a simple robotic decision-making scenario using
                       Boolean operators (like obstacle avoidance or object picking).
                   ∑   Output: Create two truth tables—one for a real-life situation and one for the robotic scenario—and explain
                       the decision-making process in 1–2 pages.
                   ∑   Learning Outcome: Understand how Boolean logic forms the foundation of both daily choices and robotic
                       intelligence.
               2.  Microcontroller vs. Single Board Computer Research
                   ∑   Task: Compare one popular Microcontroller (like Arduino Uno) and one Single Board Computer (like
                       Raspberry Pi). Study their architecture, memory, I/O features, and power usage.
                   ∑   Output: Make a comparative chart (at least 5 points each) and conclude which one is more suitable for:
                       §   A line-following robot
                       §  A self-driving toy car
                   ∑   Learning Outcome: Learn how computing choices impact robot performance, cost, and complexity.
               3.  Algorithm   Flowchart   Code (Hands-On Mini Project)
                   ∑   Task: Select a simple robotic task—like controlling an LED, following a line, or avoiding an obstacle. Write:
                       §   Algorithm (step-by-step instructions)
                       §   Flowchart (using standard symbols)
                       §   Pseudocode
                       §   (Optional hands-on) Write the actual code in Arduino C or Python and test it if resources are available.
                   ∑   Output: A three-stage documentation (Algorithm–Flowchart–Pseudocode) with screenshots
                       or photos if code is executed.
                   ∑   Learning Outcome: Gain structured thinking—from logic design to actual programming—mirroring
                       how real robotics engineers’ work.








                                                           AT A GLANCE
                     Boolean algebra, developed by George Boole, is a branch of mathematics dealing with variables that can
                      only have two possible states: True (1) or False (0).
                     A Microcontroller is essentially a small, compact computer chip designed to perform specific control tasks.
                     A Single Board Computer is a complete computer built on a single circuit board.
                     An Algorithm  is a detailed, step-by-step  procedure  or a set  of rules for  solving a specific  problem  or
                      accomplishing a specific task.
                     A Flowchart is a graphical or diagrammatic representation of an algorithm or a process.
                     A robot’s hardware provides its body, senses, and processing power, but it’s the software or program that
                      gives it life and intelligence.
                     Debugging is the process of identifying, analysing, and removing errors or “bugs” from a computer program
                      or electronic hardware.



              98
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="101"><![CDATA[EXERCISE



                                                                                                    Solved Questions

                                                  SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                   QUIZ
                 A.  Tick ( ) the correct option.
                    1.  Boolean logic deals with:
                         i.  Numbers                                     ii.  True/False values

                        iii.  Angles                                    iv.  Colours

                    2.  The smallest unit of information in computing is:
                         i.  Byte                                        ii.  Word
                        iii.  Bit                                       iv.  Nibble

                    3.  Which of the following represents a microcontroller commonly used in robotics?

                         i.  Intel i7                                    ii.  Arduino Uno
                        iii.  Hard disk                                 iv.  Monitor

                    4.  A Raspberry Pi is an example of:
                         i.  Microcontroller                             ii.  Sensor

                        iii.  Operating System                          iv.  Single Board Computer

                    5.  In Boolean logic, the output of an AND gate is 1 when:
                         i.  Any input is 1                              ii.  All inputs are 1

                        iii.  Only one input is 0                       iv.  Inputs are unequal

                    6.  Which among these is not an input device for a robot?
                         i.  Camera                                      ii.  Microphone
                        iii.  Joystick                                  iv.  Actuator

                    7.  Pseudocode is written to:

                         i.  Control motors directly
                         ii.  Provide a human-readable form of algorithm

                        iii.  Replace coding languages
                        iv.  Measure voltage

                    8.  Flowcharts use which shapes for decision-making?
                         i.  Rectangle                                   ii.  Oval

                        iii.  Diamond                                   iv.  Square

                    9.  Which programming language is often used for Arduino microcontrollers?
                         i.  Python                                      ii.  C/C++

                        iii.  Java                                      iv.  HTML


                                                                                                                       99
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="102"><![CDATA[10.  The primary difference between microcontroller and microprocessor is:
                       i.  Microcontroller has CPU, memory, and I/O built-in

                      ii.  Microprocessor always runs on batteries

                      iii.  Microcontroller is only used in laptops
                      iv.  Microprocessor cannot perform logic


              B.  Fill in the blanks.
                  1.  Boolean logic was developed by                .

                  2.  A                   is a graphical representation of an algorithm.

                  3.  The truth table for an OR gate shows 0 only when             .
                  4.  The CPU of a computer is often referred to as the             of the system.

                  5.  A                   is a small computer on a single chip, used widely in robotics.

                  6.  Flowcharts start and end with a                symbol.

                  7.  Algorithms are step-by-step                 to solve a problem.
                  8.  In robotics, computing systems act as the              of the robot.

                  9.  A                   board is used in teaching Python-based robotics projects.

                  10.                   logic is the foundation of computer decision-making.

              C.  State whether these statements are true or false.
                  1.  In an AND gate, the output is 1 if at least one input is 1.

                  2.  Flowcharts can only be drawn using rectangles.

                  3.  Microcontrollers are often used for controlling sensors and actuators in robots.
                  4.  Algorithms are always written in a programming language.

                  5.  Pseudocode helps in converting ideas into actual code.

              D.  Match the Following:
                  1.  AND gate                                      a.  Oval

                  2.  Flowchart start/end                           b.  Python projects

                  3.  Raspberry Pi                                  c.  Both inputs must be 1
                  4.  Algorithm                                     d.  Step-by-step procedure

                  5.  Diamond symbol                                e.  Decision-making


                                                SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)

              A.  Short answer type questions.

                  1.  Define Boolean logic with one example.
                     Ans.   Boolean logic: A form of logic dealing with true (1) and false (0). Example: In an OR gate, if one input
                           is 1, the output is 1.
              100
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="103"><![CDATA[2.  Differentiate between microcontroller and single-board computer.
                        Ans.  Microcontroller vs SBC: A microcontroller (like Arduino) has CPU, memory, and I/O on a single chip; an
                             SBC (like Raspberry Pi) is a complete computer with higher processing power, used for complex tasks.
                    3.  What is pseudocode, and why is it important?
                        Ans.  Pseudocode: A simplified,  human-readable  version of an algorithm.  It helps bridge  the gap between
                             thinking and coding.

                    4.  Draw and explain the symbol used for decision-making in a flowchart.
                        Ans.  Decision-making  symbol: A  diamond  shape  is  used  in  flowcharts to  represent  conditions  (e.g., “If
                             temperature > 30°C?”).
                    5.  Mention two common programming languages used in robotics.
                        Ans.  Common programming languages: C/C++ (Arduino), Python (Raspberry Pi).

                    6.  Why are flowcharts considered useful in robotics programming?
                        Ans.  Flowcharts provide a visual representation of program logic, making it easier to debug and communicate.
                 B.  Long answer type questions.

                    1.  Explain in detail the role of computing systems in robotics.
                        Ans.  Computing systems in robots act as the brain, processing input from sensors, applying logic, and controlling
                             actuators. They enable decision-making and autonomy.
                    2.  Discuss Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) with truth tables and examples.
                        Ans.  Boolean operators:
                             ∑  AND: Output is 1 when all inputs are 1.
                             ∑  OR: Output is 1 when any input is 1.
                             ∑  NOT: Inverts input (0 becomes 1, 1 becomes 0). (Truth tables must be included).

                    3.  Compare Arduino and Raspberry Pi in terms of use in robotics.
                        Ans.  Arduino vs Raspberry Pi:
                             ∑  Arduino: Microcontroller, used for real-time control of sensors/actuators.
                             ∑  Raspberry Pi: SBC, capable of multitasking, running OS, used for AI, vision, IoT.
                    4.  Describe the step-by-step process of going from algorithm   flowchart   pseudocode   program.
                        Ans.  Steps:
                             ∑  Algorithm: Step-by-step instructions.
                             ∑  Flowchart: Graphical representation.

                             ∑  Pseudocode: Structured plain-language logic.
                             ∑  Program: Actual code (e.g., Arduino C or Python).
                    5.  Explain how microcontrollers interact with sensors and actuators in a robot.
                        Ans.  Microcontrollers collect data from sensors (temperature, light, distance), process it, and send signals to
                             actuators (motors, LEDs) to perform actions.

                                                                                                   21 st
                 C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                         Century   #Experiential Learning
                                                                                                  Skills
                    1.  Your robot must follow a black line on the floor. Write an algorithm, a flowchart, and pseudocode for this task.
                        Ans.  Line-following robot:
                             ∑  Algorithm: Detect line   Adjust motor direction   Repeat.
                             ∑  Flowchart: Start   Sensor reads   Is black line detected?   Yes: Move forward; No: Adjust left/right.

                                                                                                                       101
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="104"><![CDATA[∑  Pseudocode:

                              Start
                             While robot ON
                                 If left_sensor = black AND right_sensor = black   Move forward

                                 If left_sensor = black AND right_sensor = white   Turn left
                                 If left_sensor = white AND right_sensor = black   Turn right
                              End
                  2.   A school wants to automate classroom lights using sensors and a microcontroller. Suggest a design, mentioning
                     the components required and how computing logic will be applied.
                     Ans.  Classroom light automation:
                           Components: Light sensor (LDR), microcontroller (Arduino), relay, LED/bulb.

                           Logic:
                           If light intensity < threshold   Switch ON light.
                           Else   Switch OFF light.

                           Application: Saves energy by automatic lighting.


                                                                                               Unsolved Questions

                                                SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                 QUIZ
              A.  Tick ( ) the correct option.
                  1.  Boolean logic is based on:
                       i.  Sets and subsets                            ii.  True/False values

                      iii.  Probability theory                        iv.  Natural numbers
                  2.  The NOT gate produces an output that is:
                       i.  Same as input                               ii.  Opposite of input

                      iii.  Always 1                                  iv.  Always 0
                  3.  Which of the following is most suitable for real-time control of motors and sensors?

                       i.  Raspberry Pi                                ii.  Arduino Uno
                      iii.  Laptop computer                           iv.  Cloud server

                  4.  A Raspberry Pi is primarily used when:
                       i.  Only simple switching is required

                      ii.  Complex computation and multitasking are needed
                      iii.  Input devices are unnecessary

                      iv.  Power supply is unlimited
                  5.  The flowchart symbol for a process (task execution) is:

                       i.  Diamond                                     ii.  Oval
                      iii.  Rectangle                                 iv.  Parallelogram




              102
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="105"><![CDATA[6.  Which programming environment is most commonly associated with Arduino boards?
                         i.  Scratch                                     ii.  Arduino IDE

                        iii.  Eclipse                                   iv.  Visual Basic

                    7.  In pseudocode, loops such as “WHILE” or “FOR” are used to:
                         i.  Repeat steps until a condition is satisfied
                         ii.  End the algorithm

                        iii.  Create flowchart symbols

                        iv.  Define hardware setup
                    8.  A microcontroller differs from a microprocessor because it:
                         i.  Requires external devices for I/O

                         ii.  Integrates CPU, memory, and I/O on a single chip

                        iii.  Cannot be programmed
                        iv.  Is always larger in size

                    9.  The basic building blocks of computing logic in robotics are:
                         i.  Sensors and actuators                       ii.  Logic gates

                        iii.  Flowcharts                                iv.  Truth tables
                    10.  An algorithm should always be:
                         i.  Vague and flexible                          ii.  Step-by-step and unambiguous

                        iii.  Written only in coding language           iv.  Based on trial-and-error

                 B.  Fill in the blanks.
                    1.  Boolean logic was first formalised by             .
                    2.  The three basic logic gates are AND, OR, and             .

                    3.  A                    is a simplified way of expressing program logic before coding.

                    4.  The                   symbol in a flowchart represents decision-making.

                    5.  A microcontroller integrates CPU,               , and input/output ports.

                    6.  In robotics, computing systems are often referred to as the robot’s         .
                    7.  Truth tables list all possible combinations of           and corresponding outputs.

                    8.                     loops are used when the number of iterations is predetermined.

                    9.  The Arduino Uno uses an                  family microcontroller.

                    10.  A single-board computer can run an operating system such as             .

                 C.  State whether these statements are true or false.
                    1.  Pseudocode must follow the syntax of a programming language.

                    2.  Flowcharts are helpful in debugging algorithms before coding.

                    3.  A Raspberry Pi can run Python programs for robotics applications.

                                                                                                                      103
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="106"><![CDATA[4.  Microcontrollers are more suitable than SBCs for vision and AI-based tasks.

                  5.  Boolean logic is irrelevant in modern computing.

              D.  Match the Following:
                  1.  Diamond                                  a.  Complex computing

                  2.  Rectangle                                b.  Unambiguous step-by-step instructions

                  3.  Algorithm                                c.  Decision-making symbol in flowcharts
                  4.  Raspberry Pi                             d.  Real-time sensor control

                  5.  Arduino                                  e.  Task execution in flowcharts



                                                SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)
              A.  Short answer type questions.

                  1.  Differentiate between AND and OR gate with truth tables.
                  2.  Why is pseudocode considered a bridge between algorithm and programming?

                  3.  Mention two cases where Raspberry Pi is better than Arduino.
                  4.  What does the term “real-time control” mean in robotics computing?

                  5.  Why is Boolean logic fundamental for designing decision-making in robots?

              B.  Long answer type questions.
                  1.   Explain the process of designing a robotic program from algorithm   flowchart   pseudocode   code, with
                     an example.

                  2.   Compare microcontrollers and single-board computers in terms of architecture, performance, and applications
                     in robotics.
                  3.  Discuss with examples how Boolean logic enables autonomous decision-making in robots.



                                                                                                21 st
              C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                         Century   #Experiential Learning
                                                                                                Skills
                  1.   A robot must water plants only when soil moisture is low. Design an algorithm, a flowchart, and pseudocode for
                     this system.

                  2.   Your school wants to automate the library check-in/check-out system using RFID sensors. Suggest whether you
                     would use Arduino or Raspberry Pi, and justify your choice.






                                                             LOGIC GATE

                Take two coins (representing inputs A and B).
                Heads = 1, Tails = 0.
                Try out AND, OR, and NOT by flipping the coins and recording outputs in a truth table. Lesson: Simple coin flips can
                help visualize Boolean logic in action.



              104
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="107"><![CDATA[21 st
                                                                                                    Century    #Digital Literacy
                                  In a self-driving car, the vehicle must process multiple types of sensor   Skills
                                  data, including cameras, LIDAR, and radar, to understand its environment. The car uses Boolean
                                  logic to make decisions such as whether to stop at a red light or avoid a pedestrian crossing. How
                                  does  Boolean  logic  facilitate  these  decisions,  and what are the potential  risks associated  with
                     deep         misinterpreting  sensor data?  Additionally,  how can these risks be mitigated  through improved
                   thinking       sensor calibration and more complex decision-making algorithms?





                                                                                     21 st
                   LAB ACTIVITY                                                    Century    #Coding & Computational Thinking
                                                                                    Skills
                      Blink an LED with Logic

                      ∑   Tools: Arduino Uno, Breadboard, LED, Resistor, Push Button.
                      ∑   Task: Implement a simple logic gate using Arduino.
                      ∑  Steps:

                         1.  Connect an LED to Arduino digital pin.
                         2.  Connect two push buttons as inputs.
                         3.  Write Arduino code for an AND condition (LED ON only when both buttons are pressed).
                         4.  Extend it with OR logic.
                      ∑   Outcome: Students understand Boolean logic and how computing translates into physical output.































                     Answers
                  Exercise (Solved)
                  A.  1. ii    2. iii    3. ii    4. iv   5. ii    6. iv   7. ii    8. iii    9. ii    10. i
                  B.  1.  George Boole     2.  Flowchart   3.  Both inputs are 0   4.  Brain          5.  Microcontroller
                      6.  Oval             7.  Instructions   8.  Brain         9.  Raspberry Pi     10.  Boolean
                  C.  1.  False            2.  False     3.  True               4.  False             5.  True
                  D.  1.  c                2.  a         3.  b                  4.  d                 5.  e


                                                                                                                      105
                                                                                                          Computing System]]></page><page Index="108"><![CDATA[21 st   #Coding & Computational Thinking
                      project 1                                                  Century   #Experiential learning
                                                                                  Skills
                                                     The Autonomous Delivery Robot
                  Objective: Design and build a mobile robot that can navigate a simple indoor environment (e.g., a classroom or
                  corridor), avoid obstacles, and autonomously deliver a small item from a starting point to a pre-defined destination.
                  Steps of the Solution:
                  1.  Project Planning & Design (Project Management):
                     ∑   Define the Scope: Specify the robot's size, the maximum payload, its speed, and the complexity of the
                         environment (e.g., a flat surface with static obstacles).
                     ∑   Component Selection (Power, Brain, Senses, Muscles):
                             Brain: Choose a microcontroller (like an Arduino Mega) or a Single Board Computer (like a Raspberry
                         §
                             Pi 4) as the central processing unit.
                         §     Senses: Select ultrasonic sensors for obstacle avoidance and wheel encoders for tracking distance
                             travelled.
                         §   Muscles: Choose two Direct Current motors with gearboxes for the drive wheels and a servo motor
                             for a simple gripper or a lifting mechanism.
                         §   Power: Select a suitable Lithium-ion battery for its high energy density to power the robot.
                     ∑   Frame & Wheels: Design the chassis (frame) using lightweight materials like acrylic or MDF. Choose
                         standard wheels for the drive and a castor wheel for balance.
                  2.  Hardware Assembly & Wiring:
                     ∑   Build the Chassis: Cut the chosen material and assemble the chassis.
                     ∑   Mount Components: Securely mount the motors, sensors, battery, and microcontroller to the chassis.
                     ∑   Wiring: Connect all the components to the microcontroller. This includes wiring the motors through a
                         motor driver (a separate circuit that amplifies the microcontroller's low-power signals to drive the motors),
                         connecting the ultrasonic sensors, and wiring the servo motor.
                  3.  Programming & Control (Fundamentals, Logic, Systems):
                     ∑   Basic Movement: Write basic code to control the Direct Current motors for forward, backward, left, and
                         right movements.
                     ∑   Sensor Integration: Write code to read data from the ultrasonic sensors. Use Boolean operators to create
                         simple decision logic. For example, IF (front_sensor_distance < THRESHOLD) THEN (stop_and_turn).
                     ∑   Navigation Algorithm: Implement a simple algorithm for autonomous navigation.
                         §   Step 1: Move forward.
                         §   Step 2: Continuously check for obstacles using the front ultrasonic sensor.
                         §   Step 3:  If an obstacle is detected, stop, check the left and right sensors to find a clear path, and turn
                                   in that direction.
                         §   Step 4: Repeat the process until the robot reaches its destination.
                     ∑   Object Delivery: Program the servo motor to activate at the destination point to either lift or drop the item.
                  4.  Debugging & Testing (Ensuring Performance):
                     ∑   Unit Testing: Test each component individually. Ensure the ultrasonic sensors provide accurate readings
                         and that the motors spin correctly.
                     ∑   Integration Testing: Test the entire system. Place the robot in a test environment with a simple obstacle
                         course and run the code to ensure the navigation algorithm works as expected.
                     ∑   Performance  Testing: Measure  the  robot's  accuracy  in reaching the  destination and its  efficiency  in
                         avoiding obstacles.


              106
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="109"><![CDATA[4

























                                                                                     LEARNING OBJECTIVES
                                                                                     l  Actuators: The Muscles of Robots - Types
                                                                                        of Motors
                                                                                     l  Sensors in Robotics: The Robot’s
                                                                                        Perception
                                                                                     l  Communication Protocols in Robotics:
                 ELECTRICAL AND CONTROL                                              l  Power Requirements of Robotic
                                                                                        The Language of Components

                 SYSTEMS                                                             l  Control Systems in Robotics: Orchestrating
                                                                                        Components: The Energy Demands
                                                                                        Accurate, Efficient, and Safe Performance



                 In this chapter, we’ll learn how electrical and control systems bring robots to life by powering movement and ensuring
                 accuracy. Actuators, such as DC motors, servo motors, and stepper motors, are explained as the driving force
                 behind robotic motion. The chapter introduces sensors like IR (Infrared) and Ultrasonic sensors, showing how robots
                 can perceive distance, detect obstacles, or respond to environmental conditions. Control systems are classified into
                 open-loop (no feedback) and  closed-loop (with feedback), teaching why feedback is essential for precision and
                 adaptability. The role of controllers (microcontrollers or processors) is described as the “brain,” which integrates
                 input from sensors and sends appropriate signals to actuators. Students gain insights into how PWM (Pulse Width
                 Modulation) controls motor speed and how feedback systems ensure stability, accuracy, and energy efficiency.
                 Real-world examples such as automatic washing machines, self-driving cars, and robotic arms are provided to
                 help students connect theory with practical applications. By the end, students appreciate how electrical and control
                 systems ensure that robots not only move but also move intelligently and safely.
                 Actuators: The Muscles of Robots - Types of Motors

                 In our previous discussions, we established that actuators are the components that enable a robot to perform physical
                 actions by converting electrical energy into mechanical motion. Motors are the most common type of actuator in robotics.
                 They are responsible for everything from moving a robot’s wheels to rotating its arm joints or precisely controlling a gripper.
                 The choice of motor is critical, as it directly impacts the robot’s speed, strength, accuracy, and overall performance.
                 We will focus on two fundamental types: DC Motors and Servo Motors.








                                                                                                                      107
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="110"><![CDATA[The Toppling Bot Tournament
                                    At a global robotics competition, a hopeful team wheeled out their robot for its big moment.
                                    The bot spun, wobbled, and—clank!—fell off the stage, splitting into pieces. Instead of quitting,
                                    the team rebuilt it overnight. The next day, their patched-up bot won a side prize for “Best
                                    Comeback.”
               actual funny
                  incidents         Learning: Every failed experiment teaches resilience and creativity.


              DC Motors (Direct Current Motors)
                                                                         Brushes
                                                   Rotor Coils
                                                                             Commutator











                                                                        Stator Magnets
                                             Shaft

              Description and Working Principle
                  Description: A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts Direct Current (DC) electrical energy into mechanical
              u
                  energy, typically in the form of rotational motion. They are widely used due to their simplicity, reliability, and ease
                  of control
                  A basic Direct Current motor consists of two main parts: a stationary part called the stator and a rotating part called
                  the rotor (or armature).
                  The stator typically contains permanent magnets or electromagnets that create a stationary magnetic field.
                  The rotor is a coil of wire wound around an iron core, which is connected to a power supply through components
                  called brushes and a commutator.
                  How it works: The basic principle of a DC motor is based on the interaction between a magnetic field and a current-
              u
                  carrying conductor. When direct current flows through the rotor’s coils, it generates its own magnetic field. This
                  magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field of the stator. The attraction and repulsion between these magnetic
                  fields create a turning force called torque, which causes the rotor to spin continuously. The commutator and brushes
                  work together as a mechanical switch, continuously reversing the direction of current in the rotor coils to maintain
                  continuous rotation in one direction.
                  There are variations like Brushed Direct Current motors (which have brushes and commutators) and Brushless
                  Direct Current motors (which use electronic commutation instead of physical brushes, offering greater efficiency
                  and longevity).

              Characteristics
                  Continuous Rotation: DC motors provide continuous rotational motion as long as power is supplied.
              u
                  Speed Control: Their speed can be easily controlled by varying the input voltage. Higher voltage generally means
              u
                  higher speed. A common method for precise speed control is Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), where the voltage is
                  rapidly switched on and off, with the “on” time determining the average voltage.
                  Torque: They can provide high starting torque, meaning they have good initial pulling or turning power.
              u
                  Simplicity: Brushed DC motors have a relatively simple construction.
              u
              108
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="111"><![CDATA[Types of DC Motors:
                 u
                    ∑   Brushed DC Motors: These are the most basic and common type, using physical brushes and a commutator. They
                       are simple and inexpensive.
                    ∑	 	Brushless DC (BLDC) Motors: These motors eliminate the brushes and commutator, using electronic commutation
                       instead. This leads to higher efficiency, longer lifespan, less noise, and lower maintenance. However, they require
                       a more complex electronic controller.
                    ∑	 	Geared DC Motors: Often, a gearbox is attached to a DC motor to reduce its output speed while significantly
                       increasing  its torque. This is very common  in robotics where high  torque  is  often needed  at  lower,  more
                       controllable speeds.

                 Applications in Robotics

                 u   Robot Locomotion: Driving wheels or tracks in mobile robots (e.g., robotic vacuum cleaners, simple wheeled robots,
                    educational robots).
                    Simple Joints: Used in robot arms or grippers where precise position control is not the absolute priority, but continuous
                 u
                    motion or strong torque is needed.
                    Fans and Pumps: In auxiliary systems within larger robotic platforms.
                 u
                    Conveyor Systems: In automated manufacturing lines.
                 u
                 Advantages
                    Cost-Effective: Generally, less expensive, especially brushed DC motors.
                 u
                    Simple Control: Relatively easy to control speed (with PWM) and direction (by reversing polarity).
                 u
                    High Starting Torque: Good for applications requiring strong initial push or pull.
                 u
                    Compact Size: Can be quite small, suitable for many robotic applications.
                 u
                 u   Quick Response: Can start, stop, and reverse direction relatively quickly.
                 Disadvantages
                    Brush  Wear  (for  Brushed  DC Motors): Brushes wear  out over time due to friction, requiring maintenance and
                 u
                    replacement. This also generates electrical noise and sparks.

                 u   Limited Precision (without feedback): Without an external sensor (like an encoder) providing feedback on their
                    exact rotational position, simple DC motors provide “open-loop” control, meaning their exact position isn’t known,
                    which can lead to positioning errors.
                    Less Efficient (Brushed): Brushed motors can lose energy due to friction and heat from the brushes.
                 u
                    Noise (Brushed): Can generate audible noise and electromagnetic interference due to sparking at the brushes.
                 u
                    Complexity (BLDC):  While  better  performing,  BLDC motors  require  more  complex  and  expensive  electronic
                 u
                    controllers.

                                                           Robots in Disaster Zones Save Lives

                                     Search-and-rescue robots are becoming crucial in natural disasters like earthquakes or
                                    floods. They can enter collapsed buildings, locate survivors using sensors, and even deliver
                      BRAINY        supplies. Drones powered by AI can scan huge areas quickly, identifying where humans are
                       FACT
                                   trapped. In Japan, snake-like robots are being designed to crawl through tiny spaces to detect
                                    survivors. These life-saving robots show that technology isn’t just about convenience—it can
                                                          be the difference between life and death.





                                                                                                                      109
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="112"><![CDATA[Servo Motors
                                                 Electric Motor
                                                            Worm Gear
                                                                  36T/10T Gear       Crossed
                                                                                      Horn




                                         Motor Stay

                                            28T/12T
                                          Helical Gear
                                            Output Shaft                    40T Gear
                                                             Gear Joint

              Description and Working Principle
                  Description: A servo motor (often simply called a “servo”) is a special type of motor system designed for precise
              u
                  control of angular position, velocity, and acceleration. Unlike a standard DC motor that spins continuously, a servo
                  motor typically rotates to a specific angular position and holds that position. It’s a “closed-loop” system, meaning it
                  constantly monitors its current position and adjusts to achieve the desired position.
                  Working Principle: A servo motor is not just a motor; it’s a complete system comprising:
              u
                  ∑	 A DC Motor (or sometimes AC/Stepper Motor): This is the core motor that provides the power.
                  ∑	 	A Gear Reduction Unit: A set of gears that reduces the motor’s high speed and increases its torque, allowing for
                    more powerful and precise movements at lower speeds.
                  ∑	 	A Position Sensor (e.g., Potentiometer or Encoder): This is the “feedback” mechanism. It continuously measures
                    the actual angular position of the motor’s output shaft and sends this information back to the controller.
                  ∑	 	A Control Circuit (or Servo Drive/Controller): This is the “brain” of the servo system. It receives a command
                    signal (e.g., “move to 90 degrees”). It then compares this commanded position with the actual position reported
                    by the sensor. If there’s a difference (an “error”), the control circuit sends a correctional signal to the motor’s
                    amplifier, adjusting the voltage and current to drive the motor until the actual position matches the commanded
                    position. This continuous comparison and adjustment is the essence of closed-loop control.

              Characteristics
                  Precise Position Control: This is their defining characteristic. They can move to and hold very specific angles with
              u
                  high accuracy.
                  Closed-Loop System: The built-in feedback mechanism ensures accuracy and compensates for external loads or
              u
                  disturbances.
                  High Torque at Low Speeds: Due to the integrated gearing, servo motors can deliver significant torque, especially
              u
                  useful for holding positions or moving heavier loads.
                  Fast Response: They can quickly accelerate, decelerate, and adjust their position in response to control signals.
              u
                  Limited Rotation (for hobby/standard servos): Many common servo motors (like those used in hobby robotics)
              u
                  have a limited range of motion, typically 0 to 180 degrees, though continuous rotation servos exist. Industrial servos
                  can often rotate continuously with high precision.

              Applications in Robotics
                  Robotic Arms and Manipulators: Critical for precise joint movements, allowing the arm to reach specific points and
              u
                  orientations (e.g., picking and placing delicate objects, welding, painting).
                  Grippers: Opening and closing robot grippers with controlled force.
              u


              110
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="113"><![CDATA[Pan-and-Tilt  Units: For precisely  aiming  cameras, sensors,  or other  devices (e.g., in surveillance robots,  drone
                 u
                    cameras).
                    Robotic Legs/Wheels (Advanced): In more complex legged robots or for steering mechanisms in wheeled robots
                 u
                    where precise angle control is needed.
                    CNC Machines: For controlling the precise movements of cutting tools.
                 u
                 Advantages
                    High Precision and Accuracy: Unmatched in their ability to achieve and maintain exact positions.
                 u
                    Closed-Loop Control: Provides excellent accuracy and repeatability, even under varying loads.
                 u
                    High Torque-to-Size Ratio: Can generate significant torque for their compact size due to gearing.
                 u
                    Dynamic Response: Very responsive to changes in command, making them suitable for dynamic movements.
                 u
                    Smooth Operation: Can operate very smoothly, even at low speeds, with minimal cogging (jerky motion).
                 u
                    Reliable: Less prone to “losing steps” or position errors compared to open-loop motors.
                 u
                 Disadvantages
                    Higher Cost: Generally, more expensive  than  basic  DC motors  due  to  the  integrated  electronics,  gears,  and
                 u
                    feedback sensor.
                    Complexity: Requires more sophisticated control electronics and tuning to stabilise the feedback loop.
                 u
                    Limited Continuous Torque: While they  have high peak  torque,  they  may  not  sustain  high torque  continuously
                 u
                    without overheating, especially in hobby-grade servos.
                    Overload Sensitivity: Can be damaged by prolonged stalling or excessive loads if not properly controlled.
                 u
                    Power Consumption (at rest): Even when holding a position, a servo motor continuously draws current to maintain
                 u
                    that position against external forces.

                                                              AI Is Fuelling Self-Driving Cars
                                        Self-driving cars, like those from Tesla or Waymo, rely on AI to “see” the road using
                                    cameras, lidar, and radar. The AI processes this data in real time to recognise traffic lights,
                      BRAINY          pedestrians, and other vehicles. The goal is to make driving safer by reducing accidents
                       FACT
                                    caused by human error. While still under testing, self-driving cars could one day transform
                                     transportation, making traffic jams less common and freeing up time that people usually
                                                                 spend behind the wheel.



                 Comparison Summary (DC Motor vs. Servo Motor in Robotics)

                        Feature               DC Motor (Typical Brushed)            Servo Motor (Closed-Loop System)
                  Primary Use           Continuous rotation, speed control      Precise position, velocity, and torque control
                                        Open-loop (speed by voltage/PWM (Pulse
                  Control                                                       Closed-loop (position/angle by feedback)
                                        Width Modulation), direction by polarity)

                  Accuracy              Lower (without external encoder)        High (due to continuous feedback)
                                                                                Motor, gearbox, position sensor, control circuit,
                  Components            Motor, brushes, commutator
                                                                                amplifier
                  Cost                  Generally lower                         Generally higher

                                                                                Lower (especially if brushless DC motor is used
                  Maintenance           Higher (brushes wear out)
                                                                                internally)



                                                                                                                       111
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="114"><![CDATA[Feature              DC Motor (Typical Brushed)            Servo Motor (Closed-Loop System)
               Complexity            Simpler                                 More complex (requires tuning)
                                     Requires  continuous  power and can drift  Can hold position  precisely, constantly
               Holding Position
                                     without a brake                         correcting for external forces

                                                                             Often  limited  (e.g., 0-180 degrees), but
               Typical Range         Continuous (360 degrees+)
                                                                             industrial types can be continuous
              The choice between a DC motor and a servo motor in a robotic application depends entirely on the specific requirements
              of the task. If a robot needs simple continuous movement, like driving its wheels forward, a DC motor (often with a
              gearbox) might suffice due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. However, if the robot needs to perform highly accurate
              and repeatable movements, such as precisely placing a component on a circuit board or articulating a robotic arm to a
              specific angle, then a servo motor, with its inherent precision and closed-loop control, is the indispensable choice. These
              actuators are the fundamental building blocks that allow robots to physically interact with and manipulate their world

                                    Industrial Robot Goes Berserk
                                    In a Chinese factory, workers were testing a new human-sized robot when a small coding
                                    error made it go wild—swinging arms, kicking over a computer, and frightening engineers into
                                    a sprint for safety. The error was traced to a misplaced decimal point in the code.

               actual funny         Learning: Attention  to  detail  in  programming  is  essential.  Tiny  mistakes  can have big
                  incidents         consequences—and sometimes, robot arms flying.


              Sensors in Robotics: The Robot’s Perception

              Sensors are indispensable components of any robotic system. They are transducers that convert physical phenomena
              (like light, sound, touch, distance, motion) into measurable electrical signals that the robot’s control system can interpret.
              Without sensors, a robot would operate blindly, unable to react to its surroundings or even know its own orientation. The
              careful selection and integration of various sensors are critical for a robot’s ability to perceive, navigate, and interact with
              the world effectively.

              Let’s explore some of the most common and important types of sensors used in modern robotics:
              Infrared (IR) Sensors

              Description
              An Infrared sensor  is a device  that  detects  infrared  radiation.  Infrared
              radiation  is  a type  of electromagnetic  radiation,  just  like  visible  light,  but
              with a longer wavelength, making it invisible to the human eye. In robotics,
              these sensors typically consist of an infrared Light Emitting Diode (LED) as an
              emitter and an infrared photodiode or phototransistor as a receiver.
              Working Principle

                  The infrared Light Emitting Diode emits a beam of infrared light.
              u
                  If there is an object in front of the sensor, this infrared light reflects off the object.
              u
                  The infrared photodiode (receiver) detects the reflected infrared light.
              u
                  The amount of reflected light detected by the receiver changes based on the distance to the object, its colour, and its
              u
                  surface properties (e.g., reflective or absorbing). A shorter distance or more reflective surface usually means more
                  reflected light.



              112
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="115"><![CDATA[The sensor’s electronic circuit then converts this detected light intensity into an electrical signal (often a voltage or
                 u
                    digital signal), which the robot’s microcontroller can read to determine the presence of an object or estimate its
                    approximate distance.
                 Applications in Robotics
                    Proximity Detection/Obstacle Avoidance: Detecting if an object is very close to the robot, commonly used in robotic
                 u
                    vacuum cleaners to avoid bumping into furniture.
                    Line Following: Used in line-follower robots to detect a black line on a white surface (or vice-versa) to guide their
                 u
                    movement.
                    Edge Detection: Sensing the edge of a table or ramp to prevent a robot from falling off.
                 u
                    Remote Control Receivers: Used in television remotes, but also in some simple robotic control systems to receive
                 u
                    commands.

                 Advantages
                    Inexpensive: Relatively cheap and easy to integrate into robotic projects.
                 u
                    Fast Response Time: Can detect objects quickly.
                 u
                    Compact Size: Small and lightweight.
                 u
                    Low Power Consumption: Generally consumes little power.
                 u
                 Disadvantages
                    Limited Range: Typically effective only for short distances (a few centimetres to tens of centimetres).
                 u
                    Susceptible to Ambient Light: Strong sunlight or other infrared sources can interfere with their readings.
                 u
                    Affected by  Surface Colour/Material: Dark, matte,  or transparent  surfaces absorb  infrared light, making  them
                 u
                    difficult to detect reliably. Highly reflective surfaces can cause false readings.
                    Less  Accurate  for Distance Measurement: Provides  a rough estimate  of distance  rather than highly precise
                 u
                    measurements.

                 Ultrasonic Sensors
                 Description

                 An Ultrasonic sensor is a device that uses sound waves, specifically ultrasound
                 (sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human
                 hearing, typically above 20 kilohertz), to measure distance to an object or detect
                 its presence. They are similar to how bats or dolphins navigate.

                 Working Principle
                    The sensor contains two main parts: a transmitter (or transducer) that emits
                 u
                    ultrasonic sound waves and a receiver that detects reflected sound waves.
                    The transmitter emits a short burst of ultrasonic sound waves.
                 u
                    These sound waves travel through the air. If they encounter an object, they reflect off its surface and travel back
                 u
                    towards the sensor.
                    The receiver listens for the echoed sound wave.
                 u
                    The sensor’s internal circuitry measures the time elapsed between sending the sound wave and receiving its echo.
                 u
                    Since the speed of sound in air is known (approximately 343 meters per second at room temperature), the sensor can
                 u
                    calculate the distance to the object using the formula:
                    Distance = (Speed of Sound × Time Elapsed)/2 .
                 u





                                                                                                                       113
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="116"><![CDATA[Applications in Robotics
                  Distance Measurement: Accurately measuring the distance to obstacles or surfaces.
              u
                  Obstacle Avoidance: Widely used in mobile robots and autonomous vehicles for detecting obstacles and navigating
              u
                  around them.
                  Parking Sensors: Common in cars to help drivers park by detecting nearby objects.
              u
                  Mapping: Simple robots can use ultrasonic sensors to create basic maps of their environment by measuring distances
              u
                  in various directions.
                  Level Sensing: Detecting the level of liquid in a tank.
              u
              Advantages

                  Reliable for Distance Measurement: Provides fairly accurate distance readings over a reasonable range.
              u
                  Not Affected by Colour/Light: Unlike infrared sensors, ultrasonic sensors are not significantly affected by the colour
              u
                  or transparency of the object, nor by ambient light conditions.
                  Works in Dark/Smoky Environments: Can operate effectively where vision-based sensors might struggle.
              u
              Disadvantages

                  Limited Range and Beam Angle: Has a maximum effective range (typically up to a few meters) and a relatively wide
              u
                  “cone” or “beam angle” for its sound waves, meaning it might detect objects that are slightly to the side, leading to
                  less precise angular detection.
                  Specular Reflection: Smooth, angled surfaces can cause the sound waves to reflect away from the receiver, making
              u
                  the object undetectable.
                  Affected by Temperature/Humidity: The speed of sound changes with temperature and humidity, which can affect
              u
                  distance accuracy if not compensated for.
                  Slower Response: Sound travels slower than light, so its response time can be slower than optical sensors.
              u
                  Soft/Fuzzy Materials: Materials that absorb sound (like fabric or foam) can be difficult to detect.
              u
                                                        Some Robots Are Inspired by Animals
                                   Nature is the greatest engineer, and robotics often copies it. Boston Dynamics created
                                 Spot, a robot dog that can climb stairs and carry loads. There are robotic fish for studying
                    BRAINY          marine life, robotic birds for spying or environmental monitoring, and even robotic
                     FACT
                                  snakes for search missions. These biomimetic designs are more adaptable to real-world
                                 environments, where wheels or simple arms don’t always work. It’s literally robots learning
                                                                from Mother Nature.



              Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) Sensors
              Description

              Light Detection and Ranging, commonly known as LIDAR, is a remote sensing method
              that uses pulsed laser light to measure distances. It’s a highly sophisticated technology,
              similar in principle to radar, but using light instead of radio waves. A LIDAR sensor typically
              spins or scans, sending out millions of laser pulses per second.

              Working Principle
                  A LIDAR sensor emits rapid pulses of laser light.
              u
                  When a laser pulse hits an object, a small portion of the light reflects back to the
              u
                  LIDAR sensor’s receiver.



              114
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="117"><![CDATA[The sensor precisely measures the time of flight for each laser pulse – the time it takes for the light to travel from the
                 u
                    sensor, reflect off an object, and return to the receiver.
                    Since the speed of light is constant and extremely fast, the distance to the object can be calculated with very high accuracy:
                 u
                    Distance = (Speed of Light × Time of Flight) / 2
                    By rotating the laser emitter and receiver, or by using mirrors, the LIDAR system can collect thousands or millions
                 u
                    of distance measurements across a wide field of view. These individual distance points, when combined, create a
                    detailed 3D representation of the environment, known as a Point Cloud.

                 Applications in Robotics
                    High-Resolution 3D Mapping: Creating incredibly detailed and accurate 3D maps of indoor and outdoor environments,
                 u
                    crucial for autonomous navigation.

                 u   Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping (SLAM): Used by autonomous vehicles and robots to simultaneously build
                    a map of an unknown environment and determine their own precise location within that map.
                    Obstacle Detection and Tracking: Identifying even small obstacles at long ranges and tracking their movement for
                 u
                    collision avoidance.
                    Navigation for Autonomous Vehicles: The primary perception sensor for many self-driving cars, enabling them to
                 u
                    “see” their surroundings with extreme precision.
                    Industrial Automation: Mapping factory floors for automated guided vehicles or inspecting large structures.
                 u
                 Advantages
                    Extremely High Accuracy: Provides highly precise distance measurements.
                 u
                    High Resolution 3D Data: Generates rich 3D point clouds, offering a detailed understanding of the environment’s
                 u
                    geometry.
                    Effective in Various Lighting Conditions: Works well in both bright light and complete darkness (as it uses its own
                 u
                    light source).
                    Long Range: Can detect objects at much greater distances than infrared or ultrasonic sensors (hundreds of meters
                 u
                    for some types).

                 u   Not Affected by Colour/Texture (as much): Less influenced by the surface properties of objects compared to
                    vision cameras.

                 Disadvantages
                    High Cost: Significantly more expensive than other sensor types, especially high-resolution models.
                 u
                 u   Performance Degrades in Adverse Weather: Rain, fog, or heavy snow can scatter laser light, significantly degrading
                    performance.
                    Bulkier and Heavier: Compared to other sensors, LIDAR units can be physically larger and heavier.
                 u
                    Data Processing Intensive: Generates enormous amounts of data (point clouds) that require powerful computing
                 u
                    resources and sophisticated algorithms for processing and interpretation.

                 Touch Sensors (Tactile Sensors)

                 Description
                 A Touch sensor, also known as a tactile sensor, is a device that detects physical contact
                 or pressure. They are designed to mimic a robot’s sense of touch, allowing it to feel its
                 interaction with objects or surfaces. They can range from simple switches to complex
                 arrays that can detect force distribution.



                                                                                                                       115
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="118"><![CDATA[Working Principle
                  Simple Touch Sensor (Switch-Based): Works like a push-button switch. When physical contact is made, it closes an
              u
                  electrical circuit, sending a digital signal (ON/OFF) to the robot’s controller.
                  Force/Pressure Sensors (Resistive/Capacitive): More advanced tactile sensors measure the amount of force or
              u
                  pressure applied.
                  ∑  Resistive: Their electrical resistance changes when pressure is applied.
                  ∑	 Capacitive: Their electrical capacitance changes when they are pressed or touched.
                  These changes in electrical properties are then converted into an analogue or digital signal proportional to the
              u
                  applied force.
                  Arrays of Sensors: Some advanced tactile sensors are arrays of tiny individual sensors spread over a surface (like
              u
                  a robot’s fingertip or palm), allowing the robot to not just detect contact but also the shape and texture of an object,
                  or how pressure is distributed.
              Applications in Robotics
                  Grasping and Manipulation: Essential for robotic grippers to detect when they have made contact with an object
              u
                  and to adjust gripping force to avoid crushing delicate items or dropping heavy ones.
                  Collision  Detection: Detecting  unexpected  contact  with obstacles  or people  to  trigger  a safety  stop  (especially
              u
                  important for collaborative robots).
                  Surface Following: Guiding a robot along a surface by maintaining light contact.
              u
                  Assembly Tasks: Confirming that components are properly seated or fastened by feeling the force feedback.
              u
                  Human-Robot Interaction: Enabling robots to respond to human touch, for example, a robot responding when its
              u
                  hand is held.
              Advantages

                  Direct Interaction: Provides direct information about physical contact, pressure, and force.
              u
                  Simple for Basic Detection: Simple switch-based touch sensors are very easy to implement and cost-effective.
              u
                  Safety Enhancement: Crucial for ensuring safe interaction between robots and their environment/humans.
              u
                  Enables Delicate Tasks: Allows robots to perform tasks requiring a “sense of feel.”
              u
              Disadvantages

                  Limited Spatial Resolution: Simple touch sensors only provide point contact information. Advanced arrays are better
              u
                  but more complex.
                  Wear and Tear: Mechanical touch sensors can degrade over time due to repeated physical contact.
              u
                  Not for Remote Sensing: Cannot detect objects from a distance; requires direct physical contact.
              u
                  Can be Fragile: Some highly sensitive force sensors can be delicate.
              u
              Gyroscopes and Accelerometers (Often Combined in an Inertial Measurement Unit - IMU)

              These  two  types  of  sensors  are often  found  together  in  a single  unit  called  an
              Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU). They are crucial for a robot’s understanding of
              its own motion and orientation.

              Gyroscopes

              Description
              A Gyroscope (specifically a Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems or MEMS gyroscope
              commonly used in robotics) is a sensor that measures angular velocity, which is
              the rate of rotation around an axis.



              116
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="119"><![CDATA[Working Principle
                    MEMS gyroscopes typically use tiny vibrating structures. When the sensor is rotated, the Coriolis effect (a force that
                 u
                    acts on a moving object within a rotating frame of reference) causes these vibrating structures to deflect.
                    The sensor detects this deflection, which is proportional to the angular velocity.
                 u
                    It measures rotation around three perpendicular axes: roll (rotation around the front-back axis), pitch (rotation
                 u
                    around the side-to-side axis), and yaw (rotation around the vertical axis).
                 Applications in Robotics

                    Orientation  and  Balance  Control: Crucial  for maintaining  the  balance  of bipedal  (two-legged)  robots  and self-
                 u
                    balancing robots (like Segways).
                    Drone Stabilisation: Essential for keeping drones stable in the air and controlling their rotational movements.
                 u
                    Robotic Arm Stability: Helping robot arms maintain a desired orientation during complex movements.
                 u
                    Navigation Systems: Used in conjunction with accelerometers for inertial navigation (dead reckoning) when Global
                 u
                    Positioning System (GPS) signals are unavailable or inaccurate.
                 Advantages
                    Directly Measures Rotational Motion: Provides precise data on how fast a robot is turning.
                 u
                    High Sensitivity: Can detect even subtle rotations.
                 u
                    Compact and Lightweight (MEMS): Modern gyroscopes are very small and can be easily integrated.
                 u
                 Disadvantages
                    Drift Over Time: Due to integration of angular velocity, errors can accumulate, causing the estimated orientation to
                 u
                    “drift” over long periods, requiring periodic recalibration or fusion with other sensors.
                    Sensitive to Vibration: Can be affected by vibrations or sudden jolts, leading to noisy readings.
                 u
                 Accelerometers
                 Description

                 An Accelerometer  is a sensor that  measures  proper acceleration,  which is the acceleration  it  experiences  relative
                 to freefall. It can detect both static acceleration (like the force of gravity) and dynamic acceleration (due to motion
                 or vibration).

                 Working Principle
                    MEMS accelerometers typically consist of a tiny seismic mass (a spring-like structure) that is free to move.
                 u
                    When the sensor experiences acceleration, the seismic mass deflects.
                 u
                    This deflection causes a change in capacitance or resistance, which is then measured and converted into an electrical
                 u
                    signal proportional to the acceleration.
                    They usually measure acceleration along three perpendicular axes (x, y, and z).
                 u
                 Applications in Robotics
                    Tilt and Orientation Detection: By measuring the direction of gravity’s pull, an accelerometer can determine the
                 u
                    robot’s tilt or inclination relative to the ground.
                    Vibration Monitoring: Detecting vibrations in robot components to identify potential issues.
                 u
                    Impact Detection: Sensing sudden impacts or collisions.
                 u
                    Basic Motion Detection: Determining if a robot is moving or stationary.
                 u
                    Humanoid Robot Gait Analysis: Understanding forces during walking.
                 u
                 Advantages

                    Detects Gravity: Useful for determining orientation relative to the Earth’s surface.
                 u
                                                                                                                       117
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="120"><![CDATA[Measures Linear Acceleration: Provides data on changes in velocity.
              u
                  Compact and Robust: MEMS accelerometers are small and relatively durable.
              u
              Disadvantages

                  Confounds Gravity and Acceleration: Cannot distinguish between acceleration due to gravity and acceleration due
              u
                  to actual motion without additional information or filtering. If a robot is falling, its accelerometer would read zero
                  acceleration relative to its own frame of reference.
                  Noise: Can be susceptible to noise from vibrations.
              u
                  Integration Errors for Position/Velocity: Integrating acceleration twice to get position (or once for velocity) accumulates
              u
                  errors rapidly, making it unsuitable for long-term position tracking without correction from other sensors.

              Sensor Fusion: The Robot’s Holistic View
              It is rare for a sophisticated robot to rely on just one type of sensor. Instead, New Age Robotics Systems employ sensor
              fusion, a technique where data from multiple different sensors are combined and processed by AI algorithms to create
              a more complete, accurate, and reliable understanding of the environment and the robot’s own state than any single
              sensor could provide.


                                                                                GPS speedometer,
                                                       RADAR
                                                     (long range)             accelerometer, compass
                                                                       Thermal imager

                                                       RADAR
                                                    (short range)
                                                                            Sensor Fusion


                                                       LiDAR



                                                                          Map         V2X
                                                       Vision                 “seeing around corners”
                                                                             Other traffic, road conditions


                  Example: For a mobile robot, an ultrasonic sensor might detect an obstacle’s distance, a LIDAR sensor might create
              u
                  a detailed map of the room, and an accelerometer and gyroscope (in an Inertial Measurement Unit) might track
                  its own precise movements. An AI system fuses this data: the LIDAR map tells the robot where it is, the ultrasonic
                  sensor provides quick warnings about close objects, and the Inertial Measurement Unit refines its position tracking in
                  between LIDAR scans, resulting in highly robust navigation.
              At last, sensors are the eyes, ears, and touch of a robot, providing the essential input for intelligent behaviour. Each type of
              sensor has unique strengths and weaknesses, making their strategic combination through sensor fusion vital for building
              robust, autonomous, and semi-autonomous robotic systems capable of navigating and interacting with our complex
              world. Understanding these sensory inputs is as crucial as understanding the robot’s brain and muscles.
              Batteries in Robotics: Powering Autonomous Operations

              Just as humans need energy from food to perform tasks, robots need electrical energy to power their motors, sensors,
              control units, and other electronic components. For mobile and autonomous robots that are not constantly plugged into a
              power outlet, batteries serve as their portable energy reservoirs. The type of battery chosen for a robot is a critical design
              decision, influencing everything from the robot’s weight and size to its operational lifespan and maintenance requirements.
              Let’s explore two types of batteries commonly found in robotics applications:

              118
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="121"><![CDATA[Lithium-ion (Li-ion) Batteries

                                                                 Electrolyte
                                                      Porous
                                                    Separator
                                          Electrolyte


                                                                                    ANODE (–)




                                                                                   Lithium-carbon
                                                                                     (Graphite)
                                              CATHODE (+)
                                                                                   Lithium ION
                                                             Lithium Metal
                                                                Oxide

                 Lithium-ion batteries are a family of rechargeable batteries that have become ubiquitous in portable electronic devices
                 (like smartphones and laptops) and are increasingly dominant in advanced robotics, electric vehicles, and renewable
                 energy storage.

                 Description and Working Principle
                    A Lithium-ion battery  generates  electricity  through the movement  of lithium  ions  between  a positive  electrode
                 u
                    (cathode) and a negative electrode (anode) through an electrolyte solution.
                    During discharge (when the battery is powering the robot), lithium ions move from the negative electrode through
                 u
                    the electrolyte to the positive electrode, and electrons flow through the external circuit, creating electric current.
                    During charge (when the battery is being recharged), an external power source forces the lithium ions back from the
                 u
                    positive electrode to the negative electrode, reversing the process and storing energy.
                    They do not contain free lithium metal; rather, the lithium ions are embedded within the electrode materials.
                 u
                 Characteristics

                    High Energy Density: Can store a large amount of electrical energy relative to their weight and volume. This means
                 u
                    a Lithium-ion battery can provide more power for a given size compared to many other battery types.
                    High Power Density: Can deliver high amounts of current rapidly, which is essential for powerful motors and fast
                 u
                    movements.
                    Low Self-Discharge Rate: They retain their charge for a relatively long time when not in use.
                 u
                    No Memory Effect: Unlike some older battery technologies, Lithium-ion batteries do not need to be fully discharged
                 u
                    before recharging to maintain their capacity. They can be “top-up charged” frequently without degrading performance.
                    Various Chemistries: There are several sub-types (e.g., Lithium Cobalt Oxide, Lithium Manganese Oxide, Lithium Iron
                 u
                    Phosphate) each with slightly different characteristics regarding energy density, power output, safety, and lifespan.

                 Applications in Robotics
                    Mobile Robots and Drones: Ideal for robotic vacuum cleaners, delivery drones, humanoid robots, and inspection
                 u
                    robots due to their lightweight and high energy density.
                    Autonomous Vehicles: Used as the primary power source in many electric and hybrid autonomous cars.
                 u
                    Industrial  Robots (Battery-Powered  AGVs/AMRs): Powering autonomous  mobile  robots  in warehouses  and
                 u
                    factories where high uptime and energy efficiency are critical.
                    Advanced Prosthetics: Enabling extended operation of sophisticated robotic limbs.
                 u


                                                                                                                       119
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="122"><![CDATA[Advantages
                  Lightweight: Very good power-to-weight ratio, allowing robots to carry less weight for the same energy, or perform
              u
                  tasks for longer durations.
                  Compact Size: High volumetric energy density means they can be made small, fitting into confined robot chassis.
              u
                  Long Cycle Life: Can withstand many charge-discharge cycles before their capacity significantly degrades (though
              u
                  this varies by chemistry).
                  High Efficiency: Very efficient in storing and releasing energy.
              u
                  Flexible Designs: Can be manufactured in various shapes and sizes (e.g., cylindrical, pouch, prismatic cells).
              u
              Disadvantages
                  Cost: Generally more expensive to manufacture and purchase compared to Lead-acid batteries.
              u
                  Safety Concerns: Can  be  prone  to  thermal  runaway (overheating  leading to  fire or explosion)  if overcharged,
              u
                  over-discharged, physically damaged, or subjected to extreme temperatures. This requires sophisticated Battery
                  Management Systems (BMS) to monitor and control their operation, adding to complexity and cost.
                  Temperature Sensitivity: Performance and lifespan can be significantly affected by extreme hot or cold temperatures.
              u
                  Degradation Over Time: Even if not used, Lithium-ion batteries gradually lose capacity over their lifespan (calendar
              u
                  ageing).
                  Transportation Restrictions: Due to safety concerns, there are strict regulations for transporting large Lithium-ion
              u
                  battery packs.

              Lead-Acid Batteries

                                                                 Terminal Posts
                                      Vent Caps
                                                                                        Cells
                                          Cover                                       Connectors
                                          Cell
                                       Partitions                                    Cells
                                          Case                                        Plates



                                      Separators
                                                                                     Electrolyte




              Lead-acid batteries are one of the oldest and most mature rechargeable battery technologies, first invented in 1859. They
              are robust, reliable, and known for their ability to deliver high surge currents.

              Description and Working Principle
                  A Lead-acid  battery  consists  of electrodes  made  of lead  and lead  dioxide,  immersed  in an electrolyte  of
              u
                  sulphuric acid.
                  During discharge, lead on the negative electrode and lead dioxide on the positive electrode react with the sulphuric
              u
                  acid to form lead sulphate on both electrodes, while releasing electrons to the external circuit.
                  During charge, the external current reverses this chemical reaction, converting the lead sulphate back into lead and
              u
                  lead dioxide, and regenerating the sulphuric acid.
                  They are commonly available as flooded (wet cell) batteries (requiring maintenance of electrolyte levels) or sealed
              u
                  (Valve  Regulated Lead-Acid - VRLA) batteries,  which include  Absorbent  Glass  Mat  (AGM)  and  Gel Cell types
                  (maintenance-free).


              120
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="123"><![CDATA[Characteristics
                    Low Energy Density: Significantly heavier and bulkier than Lithium-ion batteries for the same amount of stored energy.
                 u
                    High Current Delivery: Capable of providing very high surge currents for short periods, which is good for starting
                 u
                    large motors.
                    Robust and Reliable: Known for their durability and ability to withstand rough handling.
                 u
                    Relatively Inexpensive: One of the most cost-effective battery technologies per unit of energy stored.
                 u
                    Voltage Stability: Maintain a relatively stable voltage during discharge until they are nearly depleted.
                 u
                 Applications in Robotics
                    Heavy-Duty Industrial Robots: Used in large industrial Automated Guided Vehicles, forklifts, and older, stationary
                 u
                    industrial robots where weight is less of a concern and robust, inexpensive power is needed.
                    Large Outdoor Autonomous Vehicles: Sometimes  found in larger,  slower-moving outdoor  robots  or research
                 u
                    platforms where budget is a primary constraint and space/weight are not as critical.
                    Backup  Power Systems: Often used  as backup  power for robotic  systems  or charging stations,  similar  to
                 u
                    Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS).
                    Solar-Powered Robots: Used in conjunction with solar panels for energy storage due to their durability and cost-
                 u
                    effectiveness.
                 Advantages
                    Low Cost: The  most  economical  rechargeable battery  option,  making  them  attractive  for  budget-constrained
                 u
                    projects or larger applications.
                    High Current Delivery: Excellent for applications requiring a burst of power (high cranking amps).
                 u
                    Robust and Tolerant: Less sensitive to overcharging/over-discharging compared to Lithium-ion, within reasonable
                 u
                    limits. More tolerant to a wider range of operating temperatures.
                    Mature Technology: Well-understood and proven technology with established recycling infrastructure.
                 u
                    Safe: Less prone to thermal runaway and fire compared to Lithium-ion, generally considered safer if properly handled.
                 u
                 Disadvantages
                    Heavy and Bulky: Their low energy density means they are significantly heavier and larger than Lithium-ion batteries
                 u
                    for the same energy capacity, limiting their use in mobile or aerial robots.
                    Lower Cycle Life: Typically have a shorter lifespan in terms of charge-discharge cycles compared to Lithium-ion.
                 u
                    Sensitive to Deep Discharge: Repeated deep discharges (draining the battery completely) can significantly reduce
                 u
                    their lifespan.
                    Slower Charging: Generally take longer to charge than Lithium-ion batteries.
                 u
                    Maintenance (for flooded types): Flooded Lead-acid batteries require periodic topping up of distilled water and
                 u
                    ventilation due to gas emission during charging. Sealed types reduce this.
                    Memory Effect (for some types/usages): Can exhibit a form of “memory effect” or reduced capacity if not fully
                 u
                    charged or if left discharged for long periods.
                 Summary of Comparison

                        Feature                  Lithium-ion Batteries                     Lead-Acid Batteries
                  Energy Density       High (Lightweight, compact)              Low (Heavy, bulky)
                  Cost                 Higher                                   Lower

                  Cycle Life           High (Many charge/discharge cycles)      Lower (Fewer cycles)
                  Power Density        High (Good for rapid acceleration)       High (Good for surge currents)



                                                                                                                       121
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="124"><![CDATA[Feature                 Lithium-ion Batteries                     Lead-Acid Batteries
               Self-Discharge        Low                                     Higher
               Memory Effect         No                                      Yes (for certain types/usages)

               Safety                Requires  Battery Management System;  Generally safer; less prone to thermal runaway
                                     potential for thermal runaway if misused
               Maintenance           Low (with Battery Management System)    High (for flooded); Low (for sealed)
               Typical Robot Use     Drones,  humanoid  robots,  mobile  service  Heavy  industrial  robots,  large Automated
                                     robots, electric cars                   Guided Vehicles, backup power


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              Communication Protocols in Robotics: The Language of Components

              For  a robot’s  various electronic  components  –  the microcontroller  (its brain), different sensors (its senses), motors
              (its muscles), and other peripheral devices – to work together seamlessly, they need a way to “talk” to each other.
              This communication happens through defined sets of rules and electrical signals known as communication protocols.
              These protocols ensure that data is transmitted and received correctly, efficiently, and reliably.

              We will focus on four common serial communication protocols, meaning they send data one bit at a time over a single
              line (or a few lines), which is efficient for managing wiring complexity in robots.

              Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter (UART)

              Description
              Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter, commonly called UART, is a hardware component (often integrated into
              microcontrollers) that facilitates asynchronous serial communication. “Asynchronous” means that there is no shared
              clock signal between the communicating devices. Instead, both the transmitting and receiving devices must agree on a
              pre-set data transmission speed, known as the baud rate.
              Key Characteristics and Differences

                  Asynchronous: No common clock line. Timing is managed by setting an agreed-upon baud rate (e.g., 9600 bits per
              u
                  second, 115200 bits per second) on both the sender and receiver.
              u   Two Wires: Typically uses two dedicated wires for communication:
                  ∑  Transmit (TX): For sending data from one device.
                  ∑  Receive (RX): For receiving data from another device.
                  Full-Duplex: Allows simultaneous (two-way) communication; data can be sent and received at the same time.
              u
                  Point-to-Point: Primarily designed for communication between two devices (one sender, one receiver). It does not
              u
                  have built-in addressing for multiple devices on a single bus.




              122
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="125"><![CDATA[Data Framing: Data is transmitted in packets called “frames.” Each frame typically includes:
                 u
                    ∑	 A start bit (signals the beginning of data).
                    ∑	 Data bits (usually 5 to 9 bits, representing the actual data).
                    ∑	 An optional parity bit (for basic error checking).
                    ∑	 One or more stop bits (signals the end of data).
                 Uses in Robotics

                    Microcontroller to PC Communication: Often used for debugging, sending log data from a robot’s microcontroller
                 u
                    to a computer’s serial port.
                    Interfacing with Modules: Connecting microcontrollers to various modules like Global Positioning System (GPS)
                 u
                    receivers, Bluetooth modules, Wi-Fi modules, or Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) readers.
                    Simple Sensor Communication: For sensors that only need to send data periodically and don’t require high speed
                 u
                    or complex networking.

                 Speed and Performance
                    Lower Speed: Generally the slowest among the protocols discussed here. Typical maximum baud rates range from
                 u
                    9600 bits per second up to around 1 Megabit per second (Mbps).
                    Limitations: Speed is limited by the accuracy of the internal clocks of the communicating devices. A significant
                 u
                    difference in baud rate can lead to corrupted data.
                 Error Detection and Reliability
                    Basic  Error  Detection: Can include  an optional  parity  bit for simple  error  checking.  The parity  bit  indicates
                 u
                    whether the number of ‘1’ bits in the data frame is even or odd. If the receiver calculates a different parity, it knows
                    an error occurred.
                    No Automatic Retransmission: UART itself does not have mechanisms for automatic error correction or retransmission
                 u
                    of corrupted data. This must be handled by higher-level software.
                    Reliability: Generally reliable for short-distance, low-speed communication between two devices.
                 u
                 Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
                 Description
                 Inter-Integrated Circuit, often pronounced “I-squared-C” or “I-two-C,” is a synchronous, multi-master, multi-slave serial
                 communication protocol developed by Philips (now NXP Semiconductors). “Synchronous” means it uses a shared clock
                 line for synchronization.

                 Key Characteristics and Differences
                    Synchronous: Uses a common clock signal for synchronization.
                 u
                    Two Wires: Requires only two bidirectional wires:
                 u
                    ∑  Serial Data Line (SDA): For transmitting and receiving data.
                    ∑  Serial Clock Line (SCL): For providing the clock signal.
                    Multi-Master,  Multi-Slave: Allows multiple  “master”  devices  (which control  the  communication)  and multiple
                 u
                    “slave” devices (which respond to commands) to share the same two bus lines.
                    Addressing: Each slave device on the I2C bus has a unique 7-bit (or sometimes 10-bit) address. The master addresses
                 u
                    a specific slave by sending its address, allowing it to communicate with individual devices on the shared bus.
                    Acknowledgement  (ACK)  Mechanism: After each  byte  of data  is transferred, the  receiving  device  sends  an
                 u
                    acknowledgement signal, confirming successful receipt. This improves reliability.
                    Pull-up Resistors: Requires external pull-up resistors on both the Serial Data Line and Serial Clock Line wires to
                 u
                    function correctly.



                                                                                                                       123
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="126"><![CDATA[Uses in Robotics
                  Sensor Integration: Very popular for connecting multiple sensors (like accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers,
              u
                  pressure sensors, temperature sensors) to a single microcontroller, reducing wiring complexity.
                  Real-time Clocks and Memory: Interfacing with Real-time Clock (RTC) modules or Electrically Erasable Programmable
              u
                  Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) chips for data storage.
                  Small Displays: Controlling small Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) or Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) displays.
              u
                  Motor Driver Control: Some motor drivers can be controlled via I2C for setting speed or direction.
              u
              Speed and Performance

                  Moderate Speed: Faster than UART but generally slower than SPI. Standard speeds range from 100 kilobits per
              u
                  second (kbps) (Standard Mode) to 400 kbps (Fast Mode), with faster modes like 1 Megabit per second (Mbps)
                  (Fast Mode Plus) and 3.4 Mbps (High-Speed Mode) available.
                  Overhead: The addressing and acknowledgement overhead can reduce the effective data throughput.
              u
              Error Detection and Reliability
                  Acknowledgement Bit: The acknowledgement mechanism provides a basic form of error detection, confirming if a
              u
                  byte was received.
                  No Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): Does not include more robust error detection like a Cyclic Redundancy Check,
              u
                  meaning some data corruption might go undetected.
                  Bus Arbitration: In multi-master systems, a mechanism called “arbitration” ensures that only one master transmits
              u
                  at a time, preventing data collisions.
                  Reliability: Generally reliable for short-distance communication within a circuit board or between closely located
              u
                  components.

              Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
              Description
              Serial Peripheral Interface, often called SPI, is a synchronous serial communication protocol primarily used for high-speed
              data transfer over short distances, typically between a microcontroller (master) and one or more peripheral devices
              (slaves).

              Key Characteristics and Differences
                  Synchronous: Uses a shared clock line for synchronization.
              u
                  Four Wires: Typically uses four dedicated wires, allowing full-duplex communication:
              u
              	   ∑  Master Out Slave In (MOSI): Data from master to slave.
              	   ∑  Master In Slave Out (MISO): Data from slave to master.
              	   ∑  Serial Clock (SCK or SCLK): Clock signal generated by the master.

              	   ∑  Slave Select (SS or CS - Chip Select): A separate line for each slave. The master pulls this line low to enable
                    (select) a specific slave it wants to communicate with.

                  Master-Slave Architecture: One master device controls communication with one or more slave devices. Each slave
              u
                  requires its own dedicated Slave Select line.
                  Full-Duplex: Allows simultaneous bidirectional communication (sending and receiving data at the same time).
              u
                  No Addressing: Unlike I2C, SPI does not use device addresses. Instead, the master selects a slave by activating its
              u
                  dedicated Slave Select line.
                  Continuous Data Streaming: Can send continuous streams of data without needing start/stop conditions for each
              u
                  byte, making it very efficient for large data transfers.




              124
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="127"><![CDATA[Uses in Robotics
                    High-Speed Sensor Data: Connecting  to  high-speed  sensors  like  some  Inertial Measurement  Units  (IMUs) or
                 u
                    high-resolution Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs).
                    Display Control: Driving complex  graphical  displays,  Organic Light  Emitting  Diode  (OLED)  screens,  or Thin-Film
                 u
                    Transistor (TFT) LCDs that require fast data updates.
                    Memory Interfaces: Communicating with flash memory, Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
                 u
                    (EEPROM), or Secure Digital (SD) card modules for data logging.

                 u   Motor Driver Integration: High-performance motor drivers often use SPI for configuration and real-time control.
                 Speed and Performance
                    Highest Speed: Generally the fastest among the four protocols discussed. Speeds can range from a few Megabits per
                 u
                    second (Mbps) to tens of Mbps, depending on the devices and wiring.
                    High Throughput: Its full-duplex nature and lack of byte-level overhead (like acknowledgement bits) lead to very high
                 u
                    effective data throughput.

                 Error Detection and Reliability
                    Limited Built-in Error Checking: SPI itself has no standard built-in error detection mechanisms (like parity bits or
                 u
                    acknowledgements). Data integrity relies on the quality of the connection and the devices.
                    Software Implementation: Error checking, if required, must be implemented in the software layer (e.g., by sending a
                 u
                    Cyclic Redundancy Check checksum after data).

                 u   High Reliability for Short Distances: Highly reliable over short distances due to dedicated lines and synchronous
                    clocking.

                 Controller Area Network (CAN)

                 Description
                 Controller Area Network, commonly known as CAN, is a robust and reliable multi-master serial communication bus
                 designed for communication between Electronic Control Units (ECUs) in harsh environments, such as automobiles and
                 industrial systems. It is a message-based protocol, meaning that messages are sent based on their content (identifier)
                 rather than a specific address.
                 Key Characteristics and Differences
                    Robust and Noise Immune: Designed to operate reliably in electrically noisy environments, using differential signalling
                 u
                    (two wires carrying opposite signals) and twisted pair cables to reduce electromagnetic interference.
                    Two Wires: Uses two wires, CAN High (CAN-H) and CAN Low (CAN-L).
                 u
                    Multi-Master, Broadcast Communication: Any device on the network (node) can initiate communication. When a
                 u
                    node sends a message, all other nodes on the bus receive it. Each node then decides if the message is relevant to it
                    based on its identifier.

                    Message Prioritisation and Arbitration: Every message has a unique identifier that also serves as its priority. If
                 u
                    multiple nodes try to transmit at the same time, a non-destructive bit-wise arbitration process ensures that the
                    message with the highest priority (lowest identifier value) gets transmitted without interruption. Other messages wait
                    their turn.
                    Sophisticated Error Detection and Fault Tolerance: CAN is built with extensive error checking mechanisms and can
                 u
                    isolate faulty nodes without disrupting the entire network.
                    Bus Topology: Typically uses a linear bus topology with terminating resistors at each end to prevent signal
                 u
                    reflections.



                                                                                                                       125
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="128"><![CDATA[Uses in Robotics
                  Automotive Robotics (Self-Driving Cars): The de-facto standard for communication between various Electronic
              u
                  Control Units in vehicles (e.g., engine control, brake systems, steering, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems like
                  parking assist, and communication with sensor arrays).
                  Industrial Robotics: Coordinating movements between multiple axes of large robotic arms, communication between
              u
                  robot controllers and external machinery, and implementing safety systems.
                  Mobile Robots and Autonomous Ground Vehicles: Communicating between navigation systems, motor controllers,
              u
                  battery management systems, and sensor arrays in complex mobile platforms.
                  Heavy Equipment: Used in agricultural machinery, construction vehicles, and material handling equipment.
              u
              Speed and Performance

                  Medium to High Speed: Data rates typically range from 10 kilobits per second (kbps) up to 1 Megabit per second
              u
                  (Mbps) for classical CAN. More modern versions like CAN Flexible Data-Rate (CAN-FD) can go up to 5-8 Mbps or
                  even higher.

                  Deterministic: Due to its arbitration mechanism, high-priority messages are guaranteed to be transmitted within a
              u
                  predictable timeframe, which is crucial for real-time control and safety-critical applications.
              Error Detection and Reliability
                  Excellent  Error Detection: Built-in mechanisms  include Cyclic  Redundancy  Check  (CRC), acknowledgement,  bit
              u
                  stuffing, and monitoring. This ensures extremely high data integrity.
                  Fault Confinement: If a node detects too many errors, it can enter a “bus-off” state, disconnecting itself from the
              u
                  network to prevent further disruption, making the network highly reliable.

                  Robustness: Designed for high reliability in electrically noisy and harsh environments.
              u
                     VIDEO SESSION                                                            21 st  Centu-
                                                                                              ry Skills  #Digital Literacy
                    Scan the QR code or visit the following link to watch the video: PROTOCOLS: UART - I2C - SPI - Serial
                    communication

                    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IyGwvGzrqp8
                    After watching the video, answer the following questions:
                    1.   Compare I2C and SPI communication protocols in terms of speed, wiring, and device connectivity.


                    2.   Why is UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) commonly used in microcontrollers like Arduino?





              Comparison and Key Characteristics

                    Feature              UART                  I2C                   SPI                  CAN
                                                                                                  Synchronous
                                  Asynchronous (uses  Synchronous (uses SCL  Synchronous (uses
               Synchronisation                                                                    (common clock, but
                                  baud rate)          clock line)           SCK clock line)
                                                                                                  message-based)
                                                                            4+ (MOSI, MISO, SCK,   2 (CAN-H, CAN-L,
               Number of Wires    2 (TX, RX)          2 (SDA, SCL)
                                                                            SS for each slave)    differential pair)



              126
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="129"><![CDATA[Feature             UART                  I2C                   SPI                  CAN
                                     Point-to-Point (one   Multi-Master, Multi-                     Multi-Master,
                  Device Roles       transmitter, one   Slave                  Master-Slave         Multi-Slave
                                     receiver)
                                     No inherent        7-bit or 10-bit unique   Slave Select line for each  Message Identifiers
                  Addressing
                                     addressing         addresses              slave (no bus address)  (priority-based)
                                                        Half-Duplex (one
                  Data Transfer Mode Full-Duplex        direction at a time on   Full-Duplex        Broadcast (all nodes
                                                        SDA)                                        see message)
                                                                                                    ~1 Mbps (Classical
                  Speed (Typical     ~1 Mbps            ~3.4 Mbps (High-Speed   ~50+ Mbps           CAN), ~8+ Mbps (CAN
                  Max)                                  Mode)
                                                                                                    Flexible Data-Rate)
                                                                                                    Excellent (Cyclic
                                     Parity bit (optional),                    Minimal (relies on   Redundancy Check,
                  Error Detection                       Acknowledgement bit
                                     Framing errors                            connection quality)  acknowledgement,
                                                                                                    error flags)
                                                                                                    Very High (designed
                                     Good for simple,   Good for intra-board   High for short,
                  Reliability                                                                       for noisy environments,
                                     short links        communication          dedicated links
                                                                                                    fault-tolerant)
                                                                                                    High (complex
                                                                               Moderate (more
                                                        Moderate (software                          protocol layers,
                  Complexity         Simplest (hardware)                       wires, software Slave
                                                        addressing, pull-ups)                       transceivers,
                                                                               Select management)
                                                                                                    termination)
                                     Debugging,                                High-speed data      Automotive, Industrial
                  Main Use Case      basic module       Sensor networks, small   transfer (memory,   Automation, robust
                                     communication      peripherals, EEPROMs   displays, fast sensors)  vehicle networks

                 The choice of communication protocol in robotics is a strategic decision based on the specific needs of the application.
                 UART is ideal for simple, point-to-point communication. I2C is excellent for connecting multiple low-speed sensors to a
                 single controller with minimal wiring. SPI shines in high-speed data transfer scenarios where a single master controls
                 multiple slaves. And finally, CAN is the go-to protocol for robust, reliable, and fault-tolerant communication in demanding,
                 real-time multi-master environments like autonomous vehicles and industrial machinery. Understanding these protocols
                 is fundamental to designing and implementing efficient and reliable robotic systems.


                                                    The Future of AI and Robots is Human Collaboration
                                     The most exciting part about robotics and AI isn’t that they’ll replace humans—it’s that
                                     they’ll work with us. Collaborative robots, or “cobots,” are already in factories, helping
                      BRAINY            workers instead of replacing them. AI assistants support doctors, teachers, and
                       FACT
                                    even farmers, amplifying human capabilities. The real future isn’t about humans versus
                                     robots—it’s about humans and robots teaming up to solve the biggest challenges, from
                                                           climate change to space exploration.



                 Power Requirements of Robotic Components: The Energy Demands
                 Every component within a robot requires electrical energy to perform its function. The amount of power (measured in
                 watts, where Power = Voltage × Current) or current (measured in amperes) consumed by each component directly
                 impacts the robot’s overall energy budget.

                                                                                                                       127
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="130"><![CDATA[This budget dictates the size and capacity of the battery, the type of power regulation needed, and ultimately, how long
              a mobile robot can operate autonomously. Understanding these requirements is fundamental for efficient and effective
              robot design.
              Motors (Actuators for Movement)

              Motors are typically the most power-hungry components in a robot, as they are responsible for generating mechanical
              motion, especially when performing strenuous tasks. Their power consumption depends heavily on their type, size, and
              the load they are moving.
              Direct Current (DC) Motors

                  Power Consumption: Varies widely, from a few milliwatts (mW) for tiny hobby motors to hundreds of watts (W) or
              u
                  even kilowatts (kW) for large industrial motors.
                  Factors Influencing Consumption:
              u
              	   ∑  Size and Torque: Larger motors designed to produce more torque (turning force) consume more power. A small
                    motor in a toy car might draw tens of milliamperes (mA), while a motor for a heavy industrial conveyor could draw
                    tens of amperes (A).
              	   ∑  Load: The heavier the load the motor has to move or lift, the more current it draws, and thus the more power it
                    consumes. Stalled motors (when they are trying to move but cannot) draw maximum current, leading to high
                    power consumption and potential overheating.
              	   ∑  Speed: Power consumption  generally  increases  with  speed,  as  more  energy  is  expended  per  unit  of time  to
                    maintain higher rotational velocities against friction and load.
              	   ∑  Efficiency: More efficient motors convert a higher percentage of electrical power into mechanical power, losing less
                    as heat. Brushless Direct Current motors, for instance, are generally more efficient than brushed Direct Current
                    motors, especially under varying loads.
                  Typical Range:
              u
              	   ∑  Small hobby Direct Current motors (e.g., for simple educational robots): 0.1 Watts to 10 Watts (drawing tens to
                    hundreds of milliamperes at typical voltages like 3V to 12V).
              	   ∑  Medium-sized Direct Current motors (e.g., for robotic vacuum cleaners or mid-sized mobile robots): 10 Watts to
                    100 Watts (drawing a few amperes at 12V or 24V).
              	   ∑  Large industrial Direct Current motors (e.g., in heavy machinery): Hundreds of Watts to several Kilowatts.

              Servo Motors

              u   Power Consumption: Varies significantly based on size and the torque required.
                  Factors Influencing Consumption:
              u
              	   ∑  Size and Torque Rating: Similar to Direct Current motors, larger servo motors with higher torque capabilities
                    consume more power.
              	   ∑  Holding Torque: A unique characteristic of servo motors is their ability to hold a position. Even when stationary,
                    they consume some power to maintain their commanded position against external forces or gravity. This “holding
                    current” is often significantly less than their “moving current.”
              	   ∑  Movement Speed and Load: During movement, especially when accelerating or moving against a heavy load,
                    servo motors draw much higher current (and thus power) to achieve the commanded motion.
              	   ∑  Number of Servos: Robots with many degrees of freedom (like humanoid robots) will have many servo motors,
                    and their combined power consumption can be very high.
                  Typical Range:
              u
              	   ∑  Small hobby servo motors (e.g., for robotic car steering, small robot joints): 0.5 Watts to 5 Watts (drawing tens
                    to hundreds of milliamperes at 5V to 7.4V).


              128
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="131"><![CDATA[∑  Medium-sized industrial servo motors (e.g., for robotic arms): 50 Watts to 500 Watts (drawing a few to tens of
                       amperes at 24V to 48V).
                 	  ∑  Large industrial servo motors (e.g., for heavy-duty industrial robots): Hundreds of Watts to several Kilowatts.
                 Sensors

                 Compared to motors, sensors generally have much lower power requirements. However, in robots with many sensors or
                 high-performance sensors, their cumulative power draw can become significant.

                 Infrared (IR) Sensors and Basic Proximity Sensors
                    Power Consumption: Very low.
                 u
                    Factors Influencing  Consumption: Depends  on the  power  of the  infrared Light  Emitting  Diode  emitter  and the
                 u
                    sensitivity of the receiver.
                    Typical Range: 10 milliwatts to 100 milliwatts (drawing a few milliamperes).
                 u
                 Ultrasonic Sensors
                    Power Consumption: Low to moderate.
                 u
                    Factors Influencing Consumption: The power required to generate the ultrasonic pulse and process the echo.
                 u
                    Typical Range: 50 milliwatts to 500 milliwatts (drawing tens of milliamperes to a few hundreds of milliamperes).
                 u
                 Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs - Gyroscopes and Accelerometers)

                    Power Consumption: Extremely low for basic units, moderate for high-performance units.
                 u
                    Factors Influencing  Consumption: Complexity  of the  internal processing,  sampling  rate,  and communication
                 u
                    interface (e.g., I2C, SPI).
                    Typical Range: 1 milliwatt to 100 milliwatts (drawing microamperes to tens of milliamperes).
                 u
                 Cameras (Vision Sensors)
                    Power Consumption: Moderate  to  high, especially  for high-resolution,  high-frame-rate cameras  or those  with
                 u
                    onboard image processing.
                    Factors Influencing Consumption: Sensor resolution, frame rate, internal image processing, presence of additional
                 u
                    features like infrared illumination or depth sensing.
                    Typical Range:
                 u
                 	  ∑  Small low-resolution camera modules: 100 milliwatts to 1 Watt.
                 	  ∑  High-resolution cameras with onboard processing (e.g., for computer vision in autonomous robots): 1 Watt to 10
                       Watts or more.
                 Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) Sensors
                    Power Consumption: Often among the highest for sensors, due to the powerful lasers and rapid scanning mechanisms.
                 u
                    Factors Influencing Consumption: Number of laser beams, rotational speed (for spinning LIDAR), range, and resolution.
                 u
                    Typical Range: 5 Watts to 50 Watts or even more for high-performance automotive-grade LIDAR units. Some small,
                 u
                    solid-state LIDAR units might consume less.

                 Other Actuators
                 Besides electric motors, robots can use other types of actuators with varying power requirements.

                 Pneumatic Actuators
                    Power Consumption: The actuators  themselves  (cylinders,  valves) consume  very  little  power. However, the  air
                 u
                    compressor that supplies the pressurised air is often a significant power consumer.
                    Factors Influencing Consumption: Size and duty cycle of the compressor, the pressure required, and the frequency
                 u
                    of actuation.
                    Typical Range: The compressor can range from hundreds of Watts to several Kilowatts.
                 u
                                                                                                                       129
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="132"><![CDATA[Hydraulic Actuators
                  Power Consumption: Similar to pneumatic, the actuators themselves are low power, but the hydraulic pump (usually
              u
                  driven by an electric motor) is a major power consumer.
                  Factors Influencing Consumption: The pump’s size, the pressure required, and the volume of fluid to be moved.
              u
              u   Typical Range: Hydraulic pumps are often powerful and can consume Kilowatts of power.
              Microcontrollers and Computing Units
              These are the ‘brains’ of the robot, processing data and executing instructions. Their power consumption depends on their
              processing power, clock speed, and the complexity of the tasks they perform.

              Simple Microcontrollers (e.g., Arduino Uno based boards)
                  Power Consumption: Very low. Designed for low-power operation.
              u
                  Factors Influencing Consumption: Clock speed, number of active peripherals, and whether low-power sleep modes
              u
                  are utilised.
                  Typical Range: 10 milliwatts to 100 milliwatts (drawing tens of milliamperes at 3.3V or 5V).
              u
              Advanced Microcontrollers (e.g., ESP32, STM32 microcontrollers)
                  Power Consumption: Low to moderate, depending on features.
              u
                  Factors Influencing Consumption: Higher clock speeds, integrated wireless communication (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth), and
              u
                  more complex processing.
                  Typical Range: 100 milliwatts to 500 milliwatts (drawing hundreds of milliamperes when Wi-Fi is active).
              u
              Single Board Computers (e.g., Raspberry Pi, NVIDIA Jetson Nano)
                  Power  Consumption: Moderate  to  high. These are more like compact  computers  than simple  microcontrollers,
              u
                  capable of running operating systems and complex AI tasks.
                  Factors Influencing Consumption: Processor workload, graphical processing unit usage (for AI/computer vision),
              u
                  number of USB devices connected, and Wi-Fi/Ethernet usage.
                  Typical  Range:  5 Watts  to 15 Watts or more, depending  on the model  and workload  (drawing hundreds of
              u
                  milliamperes to several amperes at 5V to 19V).
              Other Components and System-Level Considerations

                  Communication Modules: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular (4G/5G) modules can consume significant power, especially
              u
                  during data transmission.
                  Voltage Regulators: These devices convert the battery’s voltage to the different voltages required by components.
              u
                  They have some efficiency losses, converting excess power to heat.
                  LEDs and Indicators: While individually low power, a large number of Light Emitting Diodes can add up.
              u
                  Cooling Systems: Fans or other cooling mechanisms for high-power processors or motor drivers also consume power.
              u
              Overall System Power Budget
              When designing a robot, engineers create a power budget by summing up the maximum power consumption of all
              individual components. This allows them to:
                  Select the right battery: Ensure the battery has enough capacity (Ampere-hours) to power the robot for the desired
              u
                  operating time.
                  Size the power supply: For tethered robots, determine the necessary power supply unit.
              u
                  Choose appropriate power regulation: Select voltage regulators and motor drivers that can handle the required currents.
              u
                  Optimise for efficiency: Identify components with high power consumption and explore ways to reduce it (e.g., using
              u
                  lower power components, implementing sleep modes for microcontrollers, optimising motor movements).


              130
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="133"><![CDATA[Control Systems in Robotics: Orchestrating Accurate, Efficient, and Safe Performance

                 Imagine trying to drive a car with your eyes closed, or playing a sport without being able to react to the ball. It would
                 be impossible to achieve your goal. Similarly, a robot needs a sophisticated system to constantly monitor its actions,
                 compare them to what it’s supposed to do, and make corrections. This is the essence of a control system in robotics.
                 A control system is a set of devices and algorithms that manage, command, direct, or regulate the behaviour of a robot
                 or another system. Its primary objective is to ensure that the robot performs its intended task with the desired precision,
                 speed, and safety.

                 Core Components of a Robotic Control System
                 A typical robotic control system forms a loop, constantly working to achieve a specific outcome. It consists of three main
                 interconnected parts:

                 Sensors (The Eyes and Ears)
                    Role: Sensors are crucial for providing feedback about the robot’s current state and its environment. They measure
                 u
                    parameters like position, velocity, force, temperature, proximity to objects, and orientation.
                    Example: An encoder on a motor measures how much a robot’s joint has rotated. A vision sensor (camera) captures
                 u
                    an image of an object. A force sensor measures the pressure exerted by a gripper.
                 Controller (The Brain)
                    Role: The controller is the “decision-maker” of the control system. It receives data from the sensors, compares it to
                 u
                    the desired state (the “setpoint” or “reference”), calculates the “error” (the difference between desired and actual),
                    and then computes the necessary commands to reduce this error.
                 u   Example: This could be a microcontroller, a single-board computer (like a Raspberry Pi), a dedicated industrial
                    robot controller, or even a powerful computer running complex Artificial Intelligence algorithms. It executes the
                    control algorithm.

                 Actuators (The Muscles)
                    Role: Actuators (like motors, hydraulic cylinders, or pneumatic systems) are the components that receive commands
                 u
                    from the controller and convert them into physical motion or force, thereby changing the robot’s state.
                    Example: If the controller determines that a robot arm needs to move to a certain position, it sends a command
                 u
                    (e.g., a voltage signal or a Pulse Width Modulation signal) to the servo motor in that joint, causing it to rotate.
                 Types of Control Systems
                 Control systems can be broadly categorised into two main types based on whether they use feedback:

                 Open-Loop Control Systems (Non-Feedback Systems)

                 Description
                 In an open-loop system, the control action is independent of the output. The controller sends commands to the actuators,
                 assuming that the robot will perform the task exactly as commanded, without checking if the desired outcome was
                 achieved. There is no feedback from sensors to adjust the output.
                 Working Principle

                 Command   Controller   Actuator   Robot Action (Output).
                 Characteristics

                 u   Simple Design: Easier and cheaper to implement because no sensors are needed to measure the output.
                    No Feedback: Does not compensate for disturbances or errors that might affect the output.
                 u
                 u   Less Accurate/Reliable: If there are external disturbances (like friction, varying loads, or unexpected obstacles), the
                    robot will not know and cannot correct its action.

                 u   No Automatic Correction: Cannot adapt to changing conditions.
                                                                                                                       131
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="134"><![CDATA[Applications
              Best suited for tasks in very stable, predictable environments where the exact relationship between input and output is
              known and constant.

              Example
                  A toaster: You set a timer for 2 minutes. The toaster heats for 2 minutes regardless of how well the bread is toasted
              u
                  (e.g., if the bread was already partially toasted, or if the voltage fluctuated).
                  A simple traffic light system: It operates on a fixed timer sequence, regardless of traffic density.
              u
                  A basic stepper motor: If commanded to move 10 steps, it assumes it has moved 10 steps, without a sensor to
              u
                  confirm its exact position.

              Closed-Loop Control Systems (Feedback Control Systems)
              Description

              In a closed-loop system, the control action depends on the output. The system continuously measures the actual output
              using sensors and compares it with the desired output. Any difference (error) is used by the controller to adjust the input
              to the actuators, thereby correcting the robot’s behaviour.

              Working Principle

              Command   Controller   Actuator   Robot Action (Output)   Sensor (measures Output)   Feedback to Controller
              (compares with Command). This forms a continuous loop.

              Characteristics
                  High Accuracy and Precision: Can achieve and maintain desired positions or speeds very accurately by continuously
              u
                  correcting errors.
                  Robustness to Disturbances: Can compensate for external disturbances (like friction, changing loads, unexpected
              u
                  forces) or internal variations (like motor wear).
                  Adaptability: Can adapt to changing environmental conditions.
              u
                  More Complex Design: Requires sensors, a more sophisticated controller, and careful tuning.
              u
              Applications

              Essential for any robotic task requiring precision, stability, safety, and adaptability to real-world conditions.

              Example
                  An  air  conditioner with  a  thermostat: You  set  the desired temperature  (command).  The thermostat  (sensor)
              u
                  measures the actual room temperature (output). If it’s too high, the air conditioner (actuator) turns on until the
                  desired temperature is reached.
                  A robot arm precisely placing an object: An encoder on each joint measures its actual angle. The controller compares
              u
                  this to the desired angle. If there’s a difference, it adjusts the motor’s power until the correct angle is achieved.
                  A self-balancing robot: It constantly uses gyroscopes and accelerometers to measure its tilt (output). If it starts to
              u
                  lean, the controller commands the motors to adjust wheel speed to push itself back to an upright position.
              Essential Control Algorithms (Proportional-Integral-Derivative - PID Control)
              Within closed-loop systems, various algorithms determine how the controller calculates corrective actions. One of the
              most common and versatile is the Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller.

              Concept
              A PID controller calculates a control output based on three factors related to the error (the difference between the desired
              value and the measured value):


              132
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="135"><![CDATA[Proportional (P) Term: This term generates a control output that is proportional to the current error.
                 u
                    ∑  Effect: The larger the error, the stronger the immediate corrective action. It helps to quickly reduce the error.
                    ∑  Drawback: Can lead to oscillations  (overshooting  the target  and then undershooting)  or a persistent
                       “steady-state error” (not quite reaching the target perfectly).
                    Integral (I) Term: This term sums up the past errors over time.
                 u
                    ∑  Effect: It helps to eliminate steady-state errors. If a small error persists for a long time, the Integral term will
                       gradually increase the control output until the error becomes zero.
                    ∑  Drawback: Can make the system slow to respond and prone to “wind-up” if not properly managed.
                    Derivative (D) Term: This term considers the rate of change of the error (how fast the error is increasing or decreasing).
                 u
                    ∑  Effect: It acts as a “damper” or “predictor,” helping to reduce overshoot and oscillations by anticipating future
                       changes. If the robot is approaching the target too quickly, the Derivative term applies a braking action.
                    ∑  Drawback: Highly sensitive to noise in sensor readings, which can cause erratic movements if not filtered.

                 How it Works (Combined)
                 The PID controller calculates the final control signal by summing up the outputs from the Proportional, Integral, and
                 Derivative terms, each weighted by a specific “gain” (a numerical factor).
                    Control Output = (Proportional Gain × Current Error) + (Integral Gain × Sum of Past Errors) + (Derivative Gain × Rate
                 u
                    of Change of Error)
                 Tuning

                 The “gains” (weights) for P, I, and D terms need to be carefully “tuned” for each specific robot and task. Incorrect tuning
                 can lead to instability, slow response, or oscillations. This tuning process often involves a mix of mathematical analysis,
                 simulation, and trial-and-error.

                 Applications
                 PID controllers are widely used in robotics for:
                    Motor Speed Control: Maintaining a constant motor speed despite varying loads.
                 u
                    Position Control: Moving a robotic arm or a mobile robot to an exact desired position.
                 u
                    Temperature Control: In processes where a robot might regulate temperature.
                 u
                    Trajectory Tracking: Making a robot follow a predefined path smoothly.
                 u
                     REBOOT

                    Answer the following Questions:

                    1.  Why do we call actuators the “muscles” of robots?
                    2.  What is the difference between open-loop and closed-loop systems?
                    3.  Why is feedback important in control systems?
                    4.  What are two uses of ultrasonic sensors?

                    5.  How does PWM help in controlling a motor?




                 Ensuring Accurate, Efficient, and Safe Robot Performance
                 Control systems are fundamental to achieving these performance metrics:

                 Accuracy and Precision
                    How: Closed-loop feedback (especially with PID control) constantly measures the robot’s actual position/speed and
                 u
                    compares it to the desired. Any tiny deviation is immediately corrected. High-resolution sensors provide the accurate
                    feedback needed.
                                                                                                                       133
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="136"><![CDATA[Example: A robotic surgeon relies on precise feedback control to ensure its instruments move exactly as
              u
                  commanded, to within fractions of a millimetre.
              Efficiency
                  How: Well-tuned  control  systems  minimise  wasted  movement,  reduce  oscillations,  and  ensure  motors  operate
              u
                  efficiently. By quickly reaching and holding a target, energy is conserved. AI-driven control can optimise paths and
                  movements for energy efficiency.
                  Example: In a manufacturing robot, efficient control algorithms minimise the time taken for each cycle and the
              u
                  energy consumed per pick-and-place operation, leading to higher throughput and lower operating costs.
              Safety
                  How: Safety-critical  control systems  incorporate  redundant sensors and safety  algorithms.  If  a robot  detects
              u
                  an unexpected obstacle via proximity sensors or an unexpected force via force sensors, the control system can
                  immediately trigger an emergency stop or reduce speed. In collaborative robots, precise force control ensures they
                  don’t harm humans.
                  Example: A collaborative robot working alongside humans will use its control system to monitor its own speed and
              u
                  the presence of humans. If a human enters its designated safe zone, the control system might immediately slow down
                  its arm movement or even stop completely to prevent any accidental contact.
              Lastly, Control systems are the silent architects behind every successful robotic operation. By continuously sensing the
              robot’s state, comparing it to its goals, and making intelligent adjustments, these systems ensure that robots are not just
              automated machines but capable, precise, and safe partners in an increasingly automated world. A strong understanding
              of control system principles is therefore indispensable for anyone venturing into the field of robotics.



                                                        ROBOT DYNAMICS
                    Actuators = devices that cause movement.

                    DC motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
                    Servo motors = precise angle control.
                    Stepper motors = move in fixed steps.
                    Sensors (IR, Ultrasonic) help robots perceive the environment.
                    Controllers = brain that processes signals.

                    Open-loop = no feedback; Closed-loop = uses feedback.
                    PWM controls motor speed.
                    Feedback increases accuracy and efficiency.
                    Integration of actuators, sensors, and controllers makes robots functional.





                 RESEARCH ACTIVITY                                                             21 st
                                                                                              Century   #Experiential Learning
                                                                                               Skills
                These activities combine actuators (motors), sensors (perception), and control systems (decision-making)—
                the three pillars of a robot s functioning.
                1.  DC Motor vs. Servo Motor Practical Comparison
                   ∑   Task: Take two small motors (a DC motor and a hobby servo, both available in robotics kits or online).
                       Research their specifications (torque, speed, control type, cost). If available, connect them to an Arduino
                       and test:
                       §   DC motor: run continuously with PWM speed control.
                       §   Servo motor: rotate to angles like 0°, 90°, 180°.

              134
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="137"><![CDATA[∑  Output: Create a comparison chart (specs, applications, pros/cons) and record short notes or photos of
                         the setup.
                      ∑  Learning Outcome: Understand how motor choice impacts robotic design—continuous vs. precise
                         movements.
                  2.  Sensor Experiment – Obstacle Detection
                      ∑  Task: Build a small test using an IR or Ultrasonic sensor with Arduino/Tinkercad (virtual option if hardware
                         unavailable). Program it to detect objects at different distances. Note how accuracy changes with surface
                         type, lighting, or distance.
                      ∑  Output: A table showing sensor readings under different conditions, and a short conclusion on which
                         situations the sensor is reliable or not.
                      ∑  Learning Outcome: Explore how environmental factors affect robotic perception and why engineers use
                         sensor fusion.
                  3.  Open-Loop vs. Closed-Loop Control Demonstration
                      ∑   Task: Simulate or physically test an open-loop vs. closed-loop system. Example:
                         §    Open-loop: A fan runs at fixed speed for 2 minutes, regardless of output.
                              Closed-loop: A temperature-controlled fan (or virtual PID demo) that adjusts speed depending
                         §
                              on a sensor reading.
                      ∑  Output: Flowcharts of both systems + a short explanation of which is more accurate and why
                         feedback is crucial in robotics.
                      ∑  Learning Outcome: Grasp the importance of control systems in achieving accuracy, efficiency,
                         and safety in robots.










                                                             AT A GLANCE
                         Actuators  are the  components  that  enable  a robot  to  perform physical  actions  by  converting  electrical
                     •
                        energy into mechanical motion.
                         A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts direct current (DC) electrical energy into mechanical
                     •
                        energy, typically in the form of rotational motion.
                         A servo motor (often simply called a “servo”) is a special type of motor system designed for precise control
                     •
                        of angular position, velocity, and acceleration.

                     •   Sensors are indispensable components of any robotic system.
                     •   These two types of sensors are often found together in a single unit called an Inertial Measurement Unit
                        (IMU).
                         For a robot’s various electronic components – the microcontroller (its brain), different sensors (its senses),
                     •
                        motors (its muscles), and other peripheral devices – to work together seamlessly, they need a way to “talk”
                        to each other.
                         Every component within a robot requires electrical energy to perform its function. The amount of power
                     •
                        (measured in watts, where Power = Voltage × Current) or current (measured in amperes) consumed by each
                        component directly impacts the robot’s overall energy budget.
                         A Control System is a set of devices and algorithms that manage, command, direct, or regulate the behaviour
                     •
                        of a robot or another system.




                                                                                                                      135
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="138"><![CDATA[EXERCISE




                                                                                                  Solved Questions
                                                SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                 QUIZ
              A.  Tick ( ) the correct option.
                  1.  The “muscles” of a robot that cause movement are called:
                       i.  Sensors                                     ii.  Actuators

                      iii.  Controllers                               iv.  Switches
                  2.  A DC motor converts:
                       i.  Electrical energy into light

                      ii.  Mechanical energy into electrical energy
                      iii.  Electrical energy into mechanical energy

                      iv.  Heat into motion
                  3.  A servo motor is best suited for:
                       i.  Continuous rotation only                    ii.  Precise angular movements

                      iii.  Generating electricity                    iv.  Long-distance communication
                  4.  Which device is used to control speed in a DC motor?
                       i.  Battery                                     ii.  PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

                      iii.  Gearbox                                   iv.  Fuse
                  5.  An ultrasonic sensor measures:
                       i.  Temperature                                 ii.  Distance using sound waves

                      iii.  Light intensity                           iv.  Voltage
                  6.  A closed-loop control system uses:

                       i.  Only input signal                           ii.  Feedback signal
                      iii.  Random output                             iv.  None of these
                  7.  An example of an open-loop system is:

                       i.  Refrigerator thermostat                     ii.  Automatic washing machine timer
                      iii.  Cruise control in cars                    iv.  Air conditioner with thermostat

                  8.  The electronic ‘brain’ that processes input and controls output is:
                       i.  Motor                                       ii.  Controller
                      iii.  Gear                                      iv.  Battery

                  9.  Infrared sensors detect:
                       i.   eat signatures                             ii.  Water levels
                      iii.  Metal only                                iv.  Magnetic fields

                  10.  Which of the following is not an actuator?
                       i.  DC motor                                    ii.  Servo motor
                      iii.  LED light                                 iv.  Camera

              136
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="139"><![CDATA[B.  Fill in the blanks.
                    1.  Devices that cause movement in robots are called              .

                    2.  A                    motor provides precise position control.
                    3.  Ultrasonic sensors work on the principle of             waves.
                    4.  In a closed-loop system,                is used to correct errors.

                    5.  The main power source for mobile robots is usually a            .
                    6.  An open-loop system does not use                .

                    7.  A robot’s controller is similar to the            in a human body.
                    8.  IR sensors are commonly used for                 detection.

                    9.  A stepper motor moves in fixed                .
                    10.  The integration of sensors, controllers, and actuators forms a         system.

                 C.  State whether these statements are true or false.
                    1.  Servo motors are used when continuous unlimited rotation is required.

                    2.  Ultrasonic sensors can measure distances accurately using sound waves.
                    3.  Open-loop systems are always more accurate than closed-loop systems.
                    4.  A microcontroller acts as the controller in a robot.

                    5.  IR sensors can be used for obstacle detection.

                 D.  Match the Following:
                    1.  DC Motor                                  a.  Obstacle detection
                    2.  Servo Motor                               b.  Precise angular control
                    3.  Ultrasonic Sensor                         c.  Converts electrical to mechanical energy

                    4.  IR Sensor                                 d.  Distance measurement
                    5.  Controller                                e.  Brain of the system

                                                  SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)


                 A.  Short answer type questions.
                    1.  Define an actuator with one example.
                        Ans.   A device that converts electrical signals into mechanical motion. Example: DC motor.
                    2.  Differentiate between open-loop and closed-loop control systems.
                        Ans.  Open-loop runs without feedback (e.g., washing machine timer); closed-loop uses feedback to correct
                             actions (e.g., air conditioner thermostat).
                    3.  What is the function of PWM in motor control?

                        Ans.  Pulse Width Modulation controls motor speed by varying the duration of voltage pulses.
                    4.  Mention two applications of ultrasonic sensors in robotics.
                        Ans.  (i) Obstacle avoidance in robots; (ii) Parking sensors in cars.

                    5.  Why are servo motors important in robotic arms?
                        Ans.  They allow robots to rotate joints to specific angles, crucial for precision in robotic arms.



                                                                                                                       137
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="140"><![CDATA[6.  Write a short note on the role of controllers in a robotic system.
                     Ans.  Acts as the robot’s brain—processes sensor input, runs logic, and sends signals to actuators.

              B.  Long answer type questions.
                  1.  Explain in detail the working of a DC motor and its applications in robotics.

                     Ans.  Works on electromagnetic principle—current through coil produces rotation. Used in wheels, fans, conveyor
                           belts in robots.

                  2.  Describe servo and stepper motors, comparing their advantages and disadvantages.
                     Ans.  ∑  Servo: High precision, angle control, feedback system, but costly.
                           ∑  Stepper: Moves in fixed steps, no feedback, simple control, but can lose steps under load.
                  3.  Discuss the importance of feedback in closed-loop systems with examples.
                     Ans.  Ensures accuracy—e.g., cruise control in cars adjusts speed by feedback from sensors. Without feedback,
                           errors accumulate.

                  4.  Explain the role of sensors (IR, Ultrasonic) in enabling robots to interact with their environment.
                     Ans.  IR detects heat/obstacles, Ultrasonic measures distance. Together, they help robots “see” and respond to
                           their environment.
                  5.  With a neat diagram, explain how actuators, sensors, and controllers work together in a robotic system.
                     Ans.  Sensors collect data 'Controller processes it' Actuators execute tasks. Example: In an obstacle-avoiding
                           robot, ultrasonic detects object, controller processes, motor turns wheels.

                                         Sensor                Controller            Actuator
                                     (Measure process       (Decision Making)      (Takes action to
                                        variable)                                     control)


                                                                                                     21 st
              C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                              Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                    Skills
                  1.   You are designing an obstacle-avoiding robot. Which sensors and control system would you use? Justify
                     your choice.
                     Ans.  Use ultrasonic sensors for distance detection, IR for close obstacle sensing. A closed-loop control system
                           ensures continuous feedback for accuracy.

                  2.   A factory wants a robotic arm that can rotate precisely to fixed angles for packaging. Which motor would you
                     recommend and why?

                     Ans.  A servo motor is best—it allows precise angular rotation (e.g., 30°, 90°, 180°) needed for packaging tasks.



                                                                                               Unsolved Questions
                                                SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                 QUIZ
              A.  Tick ( ) the correct option.
                  1.  Which actuator would you use for a robotic arm that needs precise angular positioning?

                       i.  DC motor                                    ii.  Servo motor
                      iii.  Stepper motor                             iv.  Pneumatic cylinder






              138
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="141"><![CDATA[2.  The function of PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) in motor control is to:
                         i.  Measure distance                            ii.  Adjust motor speed

                        iii.  Store program code                        iv.  Generate electricity
                    3.  A closed-loop control system is superior to open-loop because it:
                         i.  Never requires sensors                      ii.  Uses feedback for accuracy

                        iii.  Consumes less power always                iv.  Requires no controller
                    4.  Which motor is most suitable for a 3D printer requiring incremental angular movements?
                         i.  DC motor                                    ii.  Servo motor

                        iii.  Stepper motor                             iv.  AC induction motor
                    5.  IR sensors primarily detect:

                         i.  Magnetic fields                             ii.  Heat signatures and proximity
                        iii.  Sound waves                               iv.  Water levels
                    6.  Ultrasonic sensors calculate distance using:

                         i.  Infrared light                              ii.  Electromagnetic waves
                        iii.  High-frequency sound waves                iv.  Magnetic fields

                    7.  Which among the following is an example of a closed-loop control system?
                         i.  Toaster                                     ii.  Fan regulator
                        iii.  Air conditioner with thermostat           iv.  Electric iron without thermostat

                    8.  The device that processes sensor inputs and sends signals to actuators is:
                         i.  Battery                                     ii.  Controller
                        iii.  End-effector                              iv.  Gearbox

                    9.  The rotation of a stepper motor is divided into:
                         i.  Infinite steps                              ii.  Continuous cycles
                        iii.  Discrete steps                            iv.  Random pulses

                    10.  A washing machine timer system without sensors is an example of:
                         i.  Closed-loop system                          ii.  Open-loop system

                        iii.  Hybrid system                             iv.  None of these
                 B.  Fill in the blanks.

                    1.  The components that convert electrical signals into physical motion are called        .
                    2.  A                    motor is used in robots for exact angular positioning.
                    3.  Ultrasonic sensors work by emitting and receiving              waves.
                    4.  In open-loop systems, there is no               signal.

                    5.  PWM stands for                  .
                    6.  Controllers in robots act as the              of the system.
                    7.  A stepper motor rotates in fixed              .
                    8.  An IR sensor is often used for              detection.
                    9.  Closed-loop systems rely on                 for correcting errors.

                    10.  A DC motor converts                  energy into mechanical energy.
                                                                                                                      139
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="142"><![CDATA[C.  State whether these statements are true or false.
                  1.  Servo motors are always used for continuous rotation applications.
                  2.  Feedback is a defining feature of closed-loop systems.

                  3.  Ultrasonic sensors can detect transparent glass surfaces with perfect accuracy.
                  4.  A controller acts as the decision-making unit of a robot.
                  5.  DC motors are unsuitable for generating continuous motion.

              D.  Match the Following:
                  1.  Servo motor                    a.  Discrete step rotation
                  2.  Stepper motor                  b.  Distance detection using sound waves

                  3.  Ultrasonic sensor              c.  Precise angular positioning
                  4.  IR sensor                      d.  Heat and obstacle detection
                  5.  Controller                     e.  Processes input and controls actuators


                                                SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)

              A.  Short answer type questions.
                  1.  Why is PWM essential in controlling DC motor speed?
                  2.  Differentiate between open-loop and closed-loop systems with suitable examples.
                  3.  State one application each for servo motors, stepper motors, and DC motors.

                  4.  How does an ultrasonic sensor calculate distance?
                  5.  Why is feedback critical for robotic accuracy and safety?

              B.  Long answer type questions.
                  1.  Explain the working principles and applications of DC, servo, and stepper motors in robotics.
                  2.   Discuss how  sensors (IR  and Ultrasonic) enhance a robot’s  ability  to interact  with its  environment. Include
                     examples of real-world applications.
                  3.   Describe the significance of control systems in robotics. Compare open-loop and closed-loop systems, highlighting
                     advantages, disadvantages, and use cases.

                                                                                                21 st
              C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                        Century   #Experiential Learning
                                                                                               Skills
                  1.   Imagine you are building an obstacle-avoiding robot. Which sensors, motors, and control system would you
                     select, and why?
                  2.   A packaging factory needs a robotic arm to place boxes with high precision. Suggest the electrical and control
                     components you would integrate, justifying your design.






                                                          FEEDBACK OR NO FEEDBACK?

                Think of two real-life examples: one with feedback (AC thermostat) and one without (toaster).
                Act them out with a partner.

                Observe the difference in accuracy and reliability. Lesson: Feedback ensures precision and control in robotic systems.


              140
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="143"><![CDATA[21 st
                                                                                                 Century   #Experiential Learning
                                                                                                 Skills
                                  The choice of battery is crucial for mobile robots, as it directly impacts their weight, size, power
                                  capacity,  and  operational  time.  Lithium-ion  (Li-ion)  and  lead-acid  batteries  are  two  common
                                  options, each with its own set of advantages and limitations. How do engineers decide between
                                  lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries for a given robot based on factors such as energy density,
                     deep         power requirements, and cost? How does the power consumption of other components, such as
                   thinking       motors and sensors, influence the battery selection process?





                                                                                       21 st
                    LAB ACTIVITY                                                     Century   #Coding & Computational Thinking
                                                                                      Skills
                      Obstacle Detection with Ultrasonic Sensor

                      ∑   Tools: Arduino Uno, Ultrasonic Sensor (HC-SR04), Buzzer/LED.
                      ∑   Task: Make a system that detects objects and gives an alert.
                      ∑   Steps:
                          1.  Connect ultrasonic sensor to Arduino.
                          2.  Write code: measure distance   if distance < 20 cm   turn ON buzzer/LED.
                          3.  Test with objects at different distances.
                      ∑   Outcome: Students explore sensor integration and closed-loop feedback systems.






























                     Answers
                  Exercise (Section A)
                  Quiz
                  A.  1. ii    2. iii    3. ii    4. ii    5. ii    6. ii    7. ii    8. ii    9. i    10. iv
                  B.  1.   Actuators                   2.  Servo                  3.  Sound                4.  Feedback
                      5.  Battery                      6.  Feedback               7.  Brain                8.  Obstacle
                      9.  Steps                       10.  Control
                  C.  1.   False                       2.  True                   3.  False                4.  True
                      5.  True
                  D.  1. c   2. b   3. d   4. a   5. e


                                                                                                                       141
                                                                                                 Electrical and Control Systems]]></page><page Index="144"><![CDATA[21 st   #Coding & Computational Thinking
                      project 2                                                  Century   #Experiential Learning
                                                                                 Skills
                                                    The Pick-and-Place Robotic Arm
                  Objective: Design and build a small, desktop robotic arm that can pick up a lightweight object from one location
                  and place it at another pre-defined location.
                  Steps of the Solution:
                  1.  Project Planning & Design (Project Management):
                     ∑   Define the Scope: Specify the arm's reach, payload capacity, and the objects it will handle (e.g., a small
                         plastic block).
                     ∑   Component Selection:
                             Brain: Use a microcontroller (like an Arduino Uno) to control the arm.
                         §
                         §   Muscles: Choose three or four servo motors to actuate the joints (manipulators). A simple gripper
                             will also be controlled by a servo motor.
                             Senses: A basic touch sensor on the gripper can be used to detect when it has successfully grasped
                         §
                             the object.
                         §   Power: A dedicated power supply unit or a suitable battery will be needed to power the servo motors.
                     ∑   Structure: Design the arm's links and a stable base using acrylic for its lightweight properties and ease of
                         fabrication with a laser cutter. The design should follow the principles of a planar open-chain mechanism.
                  2.  Hardware Assembly & Wiring:
                     ∑   Fabricate the Links: Cut the acrylic links and other structural parts from the design.
                     ∑   Assembly: Assemble the robotic arm, attaching a servo motor at each joint.
                     ∑   Wiring: Connect all the servo motors and the touch sensor to the microcontroller.
                  3.  Programming & Control (Fundamentals, Logic, Kinematics):
                     ∑   Manual Control: Write a simple program to manually control each servo motor using a variable or a
                         potentiometer to understand how each joint moves.
                     ∑   Forward  Kinematics (RP or 2R configuration): Manually calculate  the  forward  kinematics for
                         the arm's configuration. This will help you understand the relationship between the joint angles and the
                         gripper's position.
                     ∑   Basic Control Program:
                         §   Step 1:  Write a series of commands to set the joint angles to move the gripper to the pickup location.
                                   For a simple robot, you can find these angles by manual trial and error.
                         §   Step 2: Activate the gripper's servo motor to close and grab the object.
                         §   Step 3:  Set the joint angles to move the arm to the drop-off location.
                         §   Step 4: Activate the gripper's servo motor to open and release the object.
                         §   Step 5: Return the arm to its original starting position.
                     ∑   Object Delivery: Program the servo motor to activate at the destination point to either lift or drop the item.
                  4.  Debugging & Testing (Ensuring Performance):
                     ∑   Calibration: Fine-tune the joint angles to ensure the arm reaches the correct pickup and drop-off locations
                         accurately. This is a form of dynamic error compensation.
                     ∑   Repeatability Test: Run the program multiple times to see if the robot can consistently pick up and place
                         the object in the same location. This is a key measure of a manipulator's performance.








              142
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="145"><![CDATA[5































                                                                                     LEARNING OBJECTIVES
                                                                                     l  Manipulators: The Robotic Arms for
                 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTIC                                             l  Mobile Robots: Navigating and Operating
                                                                                        Industrial Automation and Assembly

                 SYSTEMS                                                             l  Drones: Aerial Robotics for a Sky-High
                                                                                        in Dynamic Environments
                                                                                        Perspective



                 This chapter explores the diverse  applications of robotics across industries and human life. Students learn how
                 industrial manipulators transformed manufacturing by automating welding, painting,  assembly, and packaging,
                 leading to higher precision and productivity. Healthcare applications are highlighted with surgical robots like the Da
                 Vinci system, which assist doctors in minimally invasive procedures, and rehabilitation robots that aid patient recovery.
                 Drones are shown as versatile mobile robots with uses in aerial photography, agriculture (crop monitoring, spraying),
                 disaster management, and security. Exploration robots, such as Mars Rovers, are studied as examples of pushing
                 human boundaries in space research. Underwater robots are discussed for their roles in oil leak detection, pipeline
                 inspection, and marine exploration. Social robots, designed for customer service, education, and companionship,
                 highlight the human-robot interaction aspect. By the end of this chapter, students gain a comprehensive view of how
                 robotics impacts industry, healthcare, environment, exploration, and daily life, preparing them to connect robotics
                 theory with real-world impact.

                 Manipulators: The Robotic Arms for Industrial Automation and Assembly
                 Continuing our in-depth exploration of robotics, we now
                 arrive at a very visible and fascinating aspect: Manipulators,
                 commonly known as robotic arms. These are the parts of the
                 robot that physically interact with the world, performing tasks
                 that often mimic human arm movements. Understanding
                 manipulators requires a blend of mechanical design, control
                 theory, and precise mathematical calculations.

                 When we think of robots, a common image that comes to mind
                 is a multi-jointed arm, tirelessly moving and performing tasks
                 in a factory.
                                                                                                                       143
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="146"><![CDATA[These are robotic manipulators, the workhorses of industrial automation. A manipulator is essentially a series of rigid
              links (like bones) connected by joints (like elbows or wrists), allowing a robotic arm to reach, grasp, and manipulate
              objects in three-dimensional space. Their design and control are deeply rooted in mathematical principles and
              sophisticated strategies.
              Basic Structure of a Robotic Manipulator Arm


                                                                                   Upper arm

                                                          Joint
                                                           Link
                                                      Lower arm
                                                    Power cable                      Wrist
                                                                                       Gripper Mounting flange
                                                          Motor

                                                          Waist
                                                           Base




              Let’s look at the provided image to understand the fundamental parts of a typical industrial robotic manipulator arm.
              You can see two views: a realistic rendering on the left and a labelled diagram on the right.

              Base
                  Description: This is the foundational, stationary part of the robot that anchors it firmly to the ground, a workbench,
              u
                  or a mobile platform. It provides stability for the entire arm.
                  Referencing Image: In  the  labelled  diagram,  you  can clearly see  the  large, circular  Base at  the  very bottom,
              u
                  supporting the rest of the manipulator.

              Joints
                  Description: Joints are the critical connections between the rigid segments (links) of the arm. They allow relative
              u
                  motion between these segments, enabling the robot to bend, rotate, and extend. The number of independent ways a
                  robot can move is determined by its number of joints, which is called its degrees of freedom.
                  Types: In the image, you primarily see revolute (rotational) joints, which allow parts to rotate around an axis, much
              u
                  like your shoulder or elbow. Each curved arrow in the diagram indicates a possible rotation at a joint.
                  Referencing Image: The diagram explicitly labels several Joints where different parts of the arm connect and rotate.
              u
                  Notice the joints at the base, waist, upper arm, and wrist areas.

              Links
                  Description: Links are the rigid structural segments that connect one joint to another. They form the physical body of
              u
                  the robotic arm. Think of them as the ‘bones’ of the arm.
                  Referencing  Image: The diagram  clearly  labels  the  Link connecting  the  base  to  the  lower arm.  Similarly,  the
              u
                  Lower arm and Upper arm are also distinct links in the manipulator.
              Waist

                  Description: This is typically the first major joint above the base, allowing the entire arm to rotate horizontally,
              u
                  sweeping across a wide workspace, much like a human turning at their waist.
                  Referencing Image: The diagram shows the Waist as the part directly above the Base, with a curved arrow indicating
              u
                  its rotational motion.

              144
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="147"><![CDATA[Lower Arm and Upper Arm
                    Description: These are the primary links that extend from the waist. The Lower arm connects to the waist, and the
                 u
                    Upper arm connects to the lower arm via a joint (like an elbow joint). These links are crucial for extending the robot’s
                    reach and positioning its end-effector.
                    Referencing Image: Both the Lower arm and Upper arm are distinctly labelled as segments of the manipulator in
                 u
                    the diagram.

                                         A Single AI Model Controls a Humanoid Robot---Incredibly Realistic Movements

                                       Boston Dynamics’ Atlas, in collaboration with Toyota Research Institute, now uses
                                      a single Large Behaviour Model (LBM) to walk, reach, and manipulate objects—tasks
                                                        previously handled by separate AI systems.
                      BRAINY         This unified model processes visual, sensor, and language data to enable Atlas to adjust
                       FACT
                                     stance, pick items from low positions, and even recover dropped objects—without being
                                                                explicitly trained to do so.
                                   The breakthrough mirrors how large language models unexpectedly learn new skills, offering
                                     a milestone toward robots that can generalize and adapt in real-world environments.




                 Wrist
                    Description: The wrist is a complex part of the manipulator, often consisting of multiple joints (typically two or three
                 u
                    revolute joints close together). These joints provide the manipulator with dexterity, allowing the end-effector to be
                    oriented in various ways, similar to how a human wrist moves.
                    Referencing Image: The Wrist is clearly labelled as the section connecting the upper arm to the gripper mounting
                 u
                    flange, with curved arrows showing its multiple rotational capabilities.

                 Gripper Mounting Flange
                    Description:  This  is  the  very  end  of  the  manipulator  arm, a  flat surface  or attachment  point  where different
                 u
                    end-effectors or tools can be bolted on. This modularity allows the robot to perform various tasks by simply swapping
                    its tool.
                    Referencing Image: The diagram shows the Gripper mounting flange at the very tip of the arm, indicating where a
                 u
                    gripper (like the one shown on the left) would be attached.
                 Motor
                    Description: Inside or near each joint, there is typically an electric motor (often a servo motor for precise control,
                 u
                    as discussed previously). These motors are the ‘muscles’ that provide the power to rotate or extend the links at
                    each joint.
                    Referencing Image: The diagram explicitly points out a Motor component at the base of the arm, highlighting where
                 u
                    the power for movement originates. Implicitly, there would be a motor for each joint allowing movement.

                 Power Cable
                    Description: This cable supplies electrical power to the motors and other electronic components within the robot’s
                 u
                    arm, connecting them back to the main power supply or battery.
                    Referencing Image: The Power cable is shown running along the side of the arm, illustrating how power is distributed
                 u
                    throughout the manipulator.
                 The number of joints (degrees of freedom) a manipulator has determines its dexterity and ability to perform complex
                 tasks. To reach any point in 3D space and orient an end-effector (like a gripper) in any direction, a robot typically needs
                 at least six degrees of freedom (three for position, three for orientation).
                                                                                                                       145
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="148"><![CDATA[The manipulator shown in the diagram appears to have multiple degrees of freedom at its waist, shoulder (between
              lower and upper arm), elbow (between upper arm and wrist), and wrist, allowing for versatile movements similar to
              a human arm.
              Mathematical Concepts for Analysing Manipulator Arms

              Understanding and controlling a robotic arm requires a precise mathematical description of its structure and motion.
              The two core mathematical concepts are  kinematics and  dynamics. We have touched upon them briefly in the
              “Physics & Mathematics” section, but here we will focus specifically on their application to manipulators.
              Kinematics of Manipulators

                  Definition: Kinematics  deals with the  geometry  of motion without  considering  the forces that  cause  the motion.
              u
                  For manipulators, it’s about the relationship between the joint angles and the position/orientation of the end-effector.
              Forward Kinematics

              u   Concept: Given the known lengths of the robot’s links and the angles of all its joints, forward kinematics calculates
                  the  exact  position  (x, y,  z coordinates)  and  orientation  (e.g., pitch,  roll, yaw  angles)  of  the  robot’s  end-effector
                  in space.

              u   Mathematical Tool: This involves using transformation matrices (as discussed in the ‘Matrix Operations’ section)
                  to represent the position and orientation of each joint’s coordinate frame relative to the previous one. By multiplying
                  these matrices sequentially from the base to the end-effector, the final position and orientation of the end-effector
                  relative to the robot’s base can be determined.
              u   Practical Use: This is used by the robot’s controller to know exactly where its tool is at any given moment, based on
                  the sensor readings of its joint angles.
              u   Example: If a robotic arm needs to know if its gripper is currently above a specific part on a conveyor belt, it uses
                  forward kinematics to calculate the gripper’s real-time position from its joint encoder readings.
              Inverse Kinematics
                  Concept: This is the more complex and common problem in robotics. Given a desired position and orientation for the
              u
                  robot’s end-effector (where you want the robot’s tool to be), inverse kinematics calculates the specific angles that
                  each of the robot’s joints must take to achieve that desired position and orientation.
                  Mathematical  Challenge: For  many  robotic  arms, solving inverse kinematics  involves complex  trigonometric
              u
                  equations or iterative numerical methods, as there might be multiple possible joint configurations to reach the same
                  end-effector position (e.g., an elbow-up or elbow-down configuration for a human arm).
                  Practical Use: This is what makes a robot usable. When a programmer tells a robot to “pick up object A,” they specify
              u
                  the location of object A in the workspace, not the individual joint angles. The robot’s control system then uses inverse
                  kinematics to figure out the required joint angles to reach that object.
                  Example: When programming a welding robot to follow a specific seam, the programmer defines the path of the
              u
                  weld in space. The robot’s controller continuously solves the inverse kinematics problem to determine the joint angles
                  required at each point along the seam to guide the welding torch precisely.

              Dynamics of Manipulators
                  Definition: Dynamics deals with the relationship between the forces and torques acting on a manipulator and the
              u
                  resulting motion (acceleration, velocity). It considers the mass, inertia, and friction of the robot’s links and the loads
                  it carries.
                  Practical Use:
              u
                     Motor Sizing: Dynamics helps engineers determine the required power and torque ratings for the motors at each
                     l
                     joint to move the manipulator and its payload efficiently. If the motors are too weak, the arm won’t be able to
                     move or lift the required load. If they are too strong, they add unnecessary weight and cost.

              146
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="149"><![CDATA[Trajectory Planning: For smooth and efficient motion, a robot’s path is not just a sequence of points but a
                       l
                        continuous trajectory (a smooth curve in space over time). Dynamics helps in planning these trajectories to avoid
                        excessive forces, vibrations, and jerky movements, ensuring precise and energy-efficient motion.
                        Force Control: In  tasks  requiring interaction  with the environment  (e.g.,  polishing,  assembly  with tight  fits),
                       l
                        dynamics is used to precisely control the forces exerted by the robot on its surroundings, preventing damage.
                    Example: When a robotic arm swings quickly to place an object, dynamics calculations predict the inertia forces
                 u
                    that will act on its joints. This helps the control system anticipate these forces and command the motors to apply the
                    correct counter-torques to ensure smooth, controlled movement without overshooting or vibrating.

                 Control Strategies for Manipulator Arms
                 Beyond  the basic control loops (like PID control), manipulators employ advanced strategies to achieve  their
                 complex tasks.

                 Joint Space Control vs. Task Space Control
                    Joint Space Control: The controller directly regulates the position or velocity of each individual joint. This is simpler
                 u
                    to implement.
                    Task Space Control (Cartesian Control): The controller directly manipulates the position and orientation of the end-
                 u
                    effector in Cartesian (x, y, z) space. This is more intuitive for programming tasks (e.g., “move gripper to x=1, y=2, z=3”)
                    but requires constant inverse kinematics calculations by the controller to translate task space commands into joint
                    commands.
                    Practical Use: Most industrial robots are programmed in task space, but their underlying controllers use complex
                 u
                    algorithms to convert these into joint movements.

                 Trajectory Planning and Control

                    Concept: Instead of just moving from point A to point B abruptly, robots follow a carefully planned trajectory, which
                 u
                    specifies the position, velocity, and acceleration of the end-effector (and often the intermediate joints) over time. This
                    ensures smooth, efficient, and jerk-free motion.
                    Control  Strategy: Control  algorithms  constantly  monitor  the  robot’s  actual  position  and velocity  and adjust
                 u
                    motor commands to make the robot follow the planned trajectory as closely as possible, even in the presence of
                    disturbances.
                    Practical Use: Essential for tasks like continuous welding (where the torch must move smoothly along a seam),
                 u
                    painting (for uniform coating), and assembly (for delicate insertion without damaging parts).
                 Force Control and Compliance

                    Concept: Beyond just controlling position, some advanced manipulators can control the force they apply to an object
                 u
                    or surface. Compliance is the ability of the robot to yield or give way when it encounters an external force.
                    Control Strategy: This often involves using force-torque sensors at the wrist or end-effector. The control system
                 u
                    continuously  measures  the interaction  forces and adjusts  the robot’s  movement  or applied  force to  maintain  a
                    desired contact force or to “feel” its way into a tight fit.
                    Practical Use:
                 u
                        Assembly: Inserting a peg into a hole with a tight fit, where the robot needs to apply a certain force but not too
                       l
                        much to avoid jamming or breaking.
                        Polishing/Grinding: Maintaining a constant contact force with the workpiece to ensure uniform material removal.
                       l
                        Human-Robot  Collaboration (Cobots): If  a cobot  accidentally  touches  a human, force control  allows it  to
                       l
                        immediately detect the contact and limit the force, ensuring safety.


                                                                                                                       147
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="150"><![CDATA[Practical Use in Automating Industrial Processes and Assembly Tasks
              Robotic manipulators are foundational to modern industrial automation, driving efficiency, quality, and safety across
              various sectors.

              Automating Industrial Processes
                  Welding: Robots  precisely  move welding torches  along complex
              u
                  seams in car bodies or other metal structures, ensuring consistent
                  weld quality and speed.
                  Painting: Robots  apply  paint uniformly  to  large surfaces like  car
              u
                  bodies  or aircraft  parts,  reducing  material  waste  and improving
                  finish quality, often in hazardous environments.



                                                             Material Handling: Picking up and moving heavy or awkwardly
                                                          u
                                                             shaped objects within a factory, reducing human strain and injury.
                                                             Machine Tending: Loading and unloading parts from Computer
                                                          u
                                                             Numerical Control (CNC) machines, presses, or injection moulding
                                                             machines, allowing for continuous operation.
                                                             Hazardous Environments: Performing tasks in environments too
                                                          u
                                                             dangerous  for humans (e.g., handling toxic  chemicals,  working
                                                             with extremely hot materials).


              Assembly Tasks
                  Electronics  Assembly:  Precisely  placing  tiny  surface-mount
              u
                  devices  (SMDs) on  circuit  boards,  or inserting  connectors.  This
                  requires extremely high accuracy and force control.






                                                                 Automotive Assembly: Installing doors, dashboards, wheels,
                                                              u
                                                                 or engines onto car chassis with consistent quality.
                                                                 Product Packaging:  Precisely  picking  and  placing  finished
                                                              u
                                                                 products into boxes or onto pallets.



                  Delicate Component Handling: Manipulating fragile components
              u
                  (e.g., glass, precision optics) without causing damage, often utilising
                  advanced tactile sensors and force control.
              Robotic manipulators, powered by a deep understanding of physics and
              meticulously controlled by sophisticated mathematical algorithms,
              are transforming manufacturing and assembly. They represent
              a powerful synergy of mechanical engineering, electronics, and
              computer science, performing tasks with unparalleled precision,
              speed, and tireless consistency, which is crucial for modern industrial
              productivity and quality. The analysis of their kinematics, dynamics,
              and the implementation of advanced control strategies are at the
              heart of their ability to automate complex real-world challenges.

              148
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="151"><![CDATA[21 st
                        VIDEO SESSION                                                            Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                 Skills
                      Scan the QR code OR visit the following link to watch the video:
                      Industrial robots are (nearly) perfect

                      https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gy6ZvIDtbU
                      After watching the video, answer the following question:
                      What did you learn from this video?







                 Mobile Robots: Navigating and Operating in Dynamic Environments

                 Unlike robotic arms that are fixed to a base, mobile robots are machines designed to move and interact with their
                 environment by changing their physical location. Their ability to navigate autonomously or semi-autonomously allows
                 them to perform tasks in vast and dynamic spaces, from factory floors and city streets to disaster zones and even
                 other planets. The fundamental challenge for a mobile robot is to know where it is, where it needs to go, and how to get
                 there safely without colliding with obstacles.
                 Basic Design Principles of Mobile Robots

                 The design of a mobile robot is driven by its intended application and the environment it will operate in. Key design
                 principles include:

                 Locomotion System (How it Moves)
                    This refers to the mechanism that allows the robot to move. The choice of locomotion system greatly influences the
                 u
                    robot’s speed, stability, manoeuvrability, and ability to traverse different terrains.
                 Wheeled Robots

                 Description

                 The most common type, using wheels for movement. They are efficient on flat,
                 hard surfaces.
                 Variations

                 Can have two wheels (requiring balancing), three wheels (tripod for stability), or
                 four/more wheels for better traction and stability. Some use specialized wheels (like
                 Mecanum wheels) for omnidirectional movement (moving sideways or diagonally
                 without turning).

                 Advantages
                 Energy efficient, simple to control on smooth surfaces, relatively fast.

                 Disadvantages:
                 Poor performance on uneven terrain, stairs, or soft surfaces.
                    Example: Robotic vacuum cleaners, warehouse Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) and Autonomous Mobile Robots
                 u
                    (AMRs), self-driving cars.







                                                                                                                       149
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="152"><![CDATA[Legged (Walking) Robots

                                                            Description
                                                            Robots that use legs (two, four, six, or more) to walk. They mimic
                                                            animal locomotion.
                                                            Advantages
                                                            Can navigate very challenging and uneven terrain, climb stairs,
                                                            step over obstacles, and operate in environments where wheels
                                                            would fail.
              Disadvantages
              Mechanically complex, higher power consumption (especially for dynamic balancing), slower speeds, more complex
              control algorithms for stable walking.

              Example
              Humanoid robots (two legs), quadruped robots (four legs, like “Spot” from Boston Dynamics), hexapod robots
              (six legs).


                                    The Runaway Robot
                                    It was a chilly afternoon in Japan when a children’s robot, left unsupervised in a shopping
                                    mall, was ambushed by a gang of kids. Instead of fighting back, the robot employed a clever
                                    trick—it scanned for tall adults, darted toward them for safety, and escaped being pelted
                                    with candy and kicked by tiny sneakers. Engineers later programmed an “abuse-evasion”
                                    system based on this wild day.
               actual funny
                  incidents         Learning: Robots sometimes need to be protected from humans, not the other way around.


              Tracked Robots (Crawler-Type)
              Description

              Use continuous tracks (like a military tank) for movement.

              Advantages
              Excellent traction on loose or uneven surfaces (sand, gravel, mud), good for climbing
              over small obstacles, highly stable.
              Disadvantages
              Slower speed, less energy efficient on hard surfaces due to high friction, can damage
              delicate surfaces.

              Example
              Exploration robots for rough terrains, military robots, some search and rescue robots.


                                                        Aerial Robots (Drones)

                                                        Description
                                                        Robots designed for flight, typically using propellers (multi-rotors
                                                        like quadcopters) or fixed wings (will be discussed much in detail in
                                                        next topic).




              150
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="153"><![CDATA[Advantages
                 Can cover large areas quickly, bypass ground obstacles entirely, provide aerial views.

                 Disadvantages
                 Limited payload capacity (for multi-rotors), sensitive to weather conditions (wind, rain), limited flight time
                 (battery life), safety concerns in populated areas.

                 Example
                 Delivery drones, surveillance drones, agricultural spraying drones, inspection drones.

                 Underwater Robots

                 Description
                 Robots designed to operate underwater, often using thrusters for
                 propulsion and buoyancy control.
                 Advantages

                 Access to underwater environments, exploration of marine life, inspection
                 of underwater infrastructure.
                 Disadvantages

                 Communication challenges (radio waves don’t travel well underwater), high pressure environments, limited visibility.
                 Example

                 Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) for deep-sea exploration, Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) for mapping
                 seabeds.
                 Power System

                    Crucial  for  autonomous  operation.  Mobile  robots  rely on onboard  batteries  (Lithium-ion  for  lightweight,  high-
                 u
                    performance; Lead-acid for heavy, robust systems) to power their motors, sensors, and computing units. The battery
                    capacity dictates the robot’s operational endurance.

                 Computing and Control Unit (The Mobile Brain)
                    A powerful microcontroller or single-board computer is needed to process sensor data, execute navigation algorithms,
                 u
                    make real-time decisions, and control the locomotion system and other actuators.
                    For highly autonomous robots, this unit runs complex Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning algorithms.
                 u

                                                RoboBallet: AI Choreographs Robotic Arms in Factory Teams
                                      An AI system called RoboBallet, developed by UCL, Google DeepMind, and Intrinsic,
                                   teaches multiple industrial robot arms to work harmoniously like dancers—without collision!
                      BRAINY
                       FACT            Using reinforcement learning, RoboBallet coordinated eight arms across 40 tasks,
                                   outperforming traditional systems limited to five robots on ten tasks, and planned workflows
                                                                in seconds instead of days.
                                          This marks a leap toward smarter, more flexible manufacturing automation.



                 Sensor Integration Techniques for Autonomous Mobile Robots
                 For a mobile robot to navigate autonomously, it needs to perceive its environment in detail. This involves integrating
                 multiple types of sensors and intelligently combining their data – a process known as sensor fusion.


                                                                                                                       151
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="154"><![CDATA[Localisation (Knowing Where I Am)
                  Principle: The robot must constantly determine its own precise position and orientation within its environment.
              u
                  Key Sensors:
              u
                     Global Positioning  System (GPS): For outdoor  environments,  provides  geographical  coordinates  (latitude,
                     l
                     longitude, altitude). Highly useful but can be inaccurate indoors or in urban canyons.
                     Inertial  Measurement Units (IMUs): Comprising  gyroscopes  (measuring  rotation  rate)  and accelerometers
                     l
                     (measuring acceleration), this help track the robot’s changes in position and orientation over short periods.
                     However, errors accumulate over time (drift).
                     Wheel Encoders: For wheeled robots, these sensors measure the rotation of the wheels, allowing the robot to
                     l
                     estimate how far it has travelled (odometry). Errors can accumulate due to wheel slippage.
                     LIDAR and Cameras: Used for visual odometry or LIDAR odometry, where the robot tracks its own movement
                     l
                     by observing features in the environment.
                  Sensor Fusion: Data from GPS, IMUs, and wheel encoders are often fused (e.g., using a Kalman filter or Extended
              u
                  Kalman filter, which are mathematical algorithms) to get a more accurate and robust estimate of the robot’s position
                  and orientation, compensating for the weaknesses of individual sensors.
              Mapping (Understanding My Surroundings)

                  Principle: The robot needs to build or use a map of its environment to plan paths and avoid obstacles.
              u
                  Key Sensors:
              u
                     LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Provides highly accurate 2D or 3D point clouds, ideal for creating precise
                     l
                     maps of indoor and outdoor environments. It’s excellent for detecting structural features like walls and furniture.
                     Cameras (Vision Sensors): Used to capture visual information. With techniques like Structure from Motion or
                     l
                     Visual Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping, cameras can also create 3D maps, especially for texture and
                     colour information that LIDAR lacks.
                     Ultrasonic Sensors: For simpler, lower-resolution mapping of immediate surroundings or for detecting large
                     l
                     obstacles.
                  Simultaneous Localisation and Mapping (SLAM): A sophisticated technique where the robot simultaneously builds
              u
                  a map of an unknown environment while determining its own location within that map. This is often achieved by
                  fusing LIDAR or camera data with IMU and odometry data.

              Perception (Detecting Objects and Obstacles)
                  Principle: The robot must identify and classify objects, obstacles, and other moving entities (like people or other
              u
                  robots) in its path.
                  Key Sensors:
              u
                     LIDAR: Excellent for detecting obstacles and their distances, regardless of lighting conditions.
                     l
                     Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging): Uses radio waves to detect the presence, range, and speed of objects,
                     l
                     particularly effective in adverse weather conditions (rain, fog) where LIDAR and cameras may struggle.
                     Cameras (Computer Vision): Essential  for identifying  the  type  of object  (e.g., pedestrian,  car, traffic light,
                     l
                     road sign), understanding semantic information (e.g., “this is a road,” “this is a sidewalk”), and reading text.
                     Advanced Artificial Intelligence (Deep Learning) is crucial here.
                     Ultrasonic and Infrared (IR) Sensors: Used for short-range proximity detection and collision avoidance.
                     l
                  Sensor Fusion: Data from all these perception sensors are continuously fused and processed by Artificial Intelligence
              u
                  algorithms to create a robust and comprehensive real-time understanding of the dynamic environment.
              Navigation and Path Planning
                  Principle: Once the robot knows where it is and what’s around it, it needs to plan a path to its destination and execute
              u
                  that path safely.

              152
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="155"><![CDATA[Algorithms:
                 u
                        Global Path Planning: Calculates an optimal path from the robot’s current location to its goal on a known map,
                       l
                        avoiding static obstacles.
                        Local Path Planning/Obstacle Avoidance: Deals with dynamic obstacles (moving people, unexpected objects)
                       l
                        in real-time, making immediate adjustments to the path to avoid collisions.
                    Example: A self-driving car uses a pre-built map for global planning but relies on real-time LIDAR, radar, and camera
                 u
                    data to detect a sudden pedestrian crossing the road (obstacle avoidance) and adjust its trajectory instantly.


                                            ANYmal the Robot Dog Plays Badminton---And It’s Surprisingly Good

                                      ANYmal, a four-legged AI robot, plays badminton using an arm and stereo camera.
                                        Trained through 50 million simulated trials, its real-world counterpart can strike
                      BRAINY                  shuttlecocks at up to 12 m/s—half the speed of an amateur human.
                       FACT
                                    It tracks the shuttle, adjusts movement dynamically, and even returns to the center of the
                                   court. While it currently doesn’t predict human opponent cues, future enhancements could
                                                broaden its agility applications to tasks like disaster response.



                 Role in Logistics, Transportation, and Search and Rescue Operations
                 Mobile robots are transforming these sectors due to their ability to automate tasks that require movement
                 and adaptability.

                 Logistics
                    Role: Automating the  movement  of goods  and materials  within
                 u
                    warehouses, distribution centers, and even between facilities.

                    Examples:
                 u
                        Autonomous  Mobile Robots (AMRs): Used in e-commerce
                       l
                        warehouses to transport shelves of goods to human pickers,
                        or to move packages to shipping areas, significantly improving
                        efficiency and reducing manual labour.
                        Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs): Traditional, track-based robots moving materials in factories. New age
                       l
                        AMRs offer more flexibility.
                        Forklift Robots: Autonomous forklifts that can load, unload, and transport pallets of goods without human drivers.
                       l
                    Impact: Increased  throughput,  reduced  operational  costs, improved  safety  by  reducing  human  interaction  with
                 u
                    heavy machinery, and 24/7 operation capabilities.

                 Transportation
                    Role: Revolutionising personal and commercial transport by enabling vehicles to drive themselves.
                 u
                    Examples:
                 u
                        Self-Driving Cars: Aiming to transport passengers without human intervention, promising increased safety (by
                       l
                        eliminating human error), reduced traffic congestion, and more efficient use of road space.
                        Autonomous  Trucks:  Hauling goods  long distances, potentially  improving  efficiency  and  addressing  driver
                       l
                        shortages.

                        Delivery Robots and Drones: Last-mile delivery of packages or food in urban and suburban areas, reducing
                       l
                        delivery costs and speed.
                        Autonomous Public Shuttles: Transporting people within campuses, airports, or specific city zones.
                       l
                                                                                                                      153
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="156"><![CDATA[Impact: Enhanced safety, potential for new transportation models, reduced environmental impact if electric, and
              u
                  greater accessibility for those unable to drive.
              Search and Rescue Operations

                  Role: Deploying robots into dangerous or inaccessible areas to locate survivors, map disaster sites, assess damage,
              u
                  and deliver aid, protecting human rescuers.
                  Examples:
              u
                     Drones: Providing aerial surveillance of disaster zones (earthquakes, floods, forest fires) to locate victims, map
                     l
                     terrain, and assess damage, often equipped with thermal cameras to detect body heat.
                     Legged  Robots (e.g.,  quadruped robots): Navigating  unstable  rubble,  climbing  over debris,  and  entering
                     l
                     collapsed structures too risky for humans, using cameras and microphones to search for survivors.
                     Tracked Robots: Traversing rough, hazardous terrain to reach victims or deliver supplies in difficult conditions.
                     l
                     Underwater Autonomous Vehicles: Searching for submerged objects or individuals after maritime accidents.
                     l
                  Impact: Significantly improves the safety of rescue personnel, speeds up victim location, provides critical information
              u
                  from dangerous zones, and can operate in conditions where human presence is impossible.

              In essence, mobile robots are the epitome of autonomous intelligence, combining advanced locomotion with
              sophisticated sensor integration and Artificial Intelligence-driven navigation. Their growing capabilities are making
              them indispensable tools, profoundly impacting how industries operate, how people move, and how emergency
              services respond to crises, pushing the boundaries of what is possible in robotics.


                                    Homework-Eating Robot
                                    In California, a teenage inventor made a robot to organize his messy backpack. One day, the
                                    bot mistook his homework for junk and shredded it into confetti. When his teacher asked for
                                    the assignment, the student explained, “My robot ate my homework!” Now he programs it
                                    to tell homework apart from candy wrappers.
               actual funny
                  incidents         Learning: Robots do what they are programmed for—even if it’s hilariously wrong.

              Drones: Aerial Robotics for a Sky-High Perspective

              This section will apply the principles of aerial robotics and drone technology, covering their design basics, essential
              sensor payloads, and the critical role of regulations. We will then explore their diverse applications in aerial photography,
              agriculture, and disaster response, ensuring a humanized formal language, elaborate descriptions, and clarity.
              Drones, or  Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), are flying robots that can be remotely controlled or operate
              autonomously based on pre-programmed flight plans or Artificial Intelligence guidance. They represent a fascinating
              application of robotics, leveraging principles of aerodynamics, advanced control systems, and sophisticated sensor
              integration to perform tasks from the sky. Their ability to hover, fly at various altitudes, and access difficult-to-reach
              areas has opened up a new dimension in automation.

              Principles of Aerial Robotics and Drone Technology

              The core of drone technology lies in how they achieve controlled flight and
              navigate through the air.

              Aerodynamics and Propulsion

                  Multi-rotor Drones (e.g., Quadcopters, Hexacopters):
              u
                     Description: These  are the  most  common  type,  featuring multiple
                     l
                     propellers (typically four, six, or eight) mounted on individual motors.

              154
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="157"><![CDATA[Principle: Each propeller creates thrust (an upward force) by pushing air downwards. The drone’s flight controller
                       l
                        independently adjusts the speed of each motor.
                        Movement Control:
                       l
                           To lift off or ascend, all propellers speed up, increasing total thrust.
                        §
                           To descend, they slow down.
                        §
                           To move forward/backward (pitch), propellers on one side speed up while those on the opposite side slow
                        §
                           down, tilting the drone.

                           To move sideways (roll), propellers on the left speed up while those on the right slow down, tilting the drone.
                        §
                           To turn left/right (yaw), specific pairs of propellers speed up or slow down to create a rotational force.
                        §
                        Advantages: Capable  of  vertical  take-off and  landing  (VTOL), stable  hovering, high maneuverability,  and
                       l
                        easier to control for beginners.
                        Disadvantages: Limited flight time (battery life), slower forward speed compared to fixed-wing, sensitive to wind.
                       l
                    Fixed-Wing Drones:
                 u
                        Description: Resemble small aeroplanes with wings. They use
                       l
                        a single or multiple propellers for forward thrust and rely on
                        the airflow over their wings to generate lift.
                        Principle: Similar to aeroplanes, they require forward motion
                       l
                        to generate lift over their wings. Control surfaces (ailerons,
                        elevators, rudder) are used to steer and change altitude.
                        Advantages: Much longer flight times and greater range (more energy efficient at cruising speed), can carry
                       l
                        heavier payloads for longer distances.

                        Disadvantages: Requires  a runway or launch system  for take-off and landing (cannot  hover or do  vertical
                       l
                        take-off/landing), less maneuverable, more complex to operate.
                    Hybrid Drones (Fixed-Wing VTOL):
                 u
                        Description: Combine features of both, offering vertical take-off and landing with the efficiency of fixed-wing flight.
                       l
                        Advantages: Best of both worlds – vertical take-off/landing in confined spaces and efficient long-duration flight.
                       l
                        Disadvantages: More mechanically complex and expensive.
                       l
                 Control System and Stability

                    Flight Controller (The Brain): An onboard computer that runs sophisticated algorithms to continuously monitor the
                 u
                    drone’s orientation, altitude, and position using various sensors. It then sends precise commands to the motors to
                    maintain stable flight or execute commanded movements.
                    Sensors for Stability and Navigation:
                 u
                        Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU): Contains gyroscopes (to measure rotational rates and prevent unwanted
                       l
                        spinning) and accelerometers (to measure linear acceleration and determine tilt/orientation relative to gravity).
                        This is absolutely critical for maintaining stable flight.
                        Barometer: Measures atmospheric pressure to estimate altitude.
                       l
                        Global Positioning  System (GPS): Provides  precise  outdoor  location,  speed,  and  altitude  data,  enabling
                       l
                        autonomous navigation between waypoints.
                        Magnetometer (Electronic Compass): Measures the Earth’s magnetic field to determine the drone’s heading
                       l
                        (direction), similar to a compass.

                        Vision Sensors (Cameras): For visual odometry (tracking movement by observing visual features), obstacle
                       l
                        avoidance (identifying objects), and landing assistance (recognising landing pads).

                                                                                                                      155
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="158"><![CDATA[LIDAR/Ultrasonic Sensors: For precise altitude holding (especially close to the ground) and obstacle detection
                     l
                     in confined spaces.
              Sensor Payloads for Drones

              Beyond the sensors for flight control, drones can carry various sensor payloads – specialized equipment attached to
              the drone – to perform their specific tasks. These payloads are often stabilized by gimbals (motorized mounts that
              keep the sensor steady and level despite drone movement).
              Visual Cameras

                  Description: High-resolution cameras (still photo or video) for capturing imagery.
              u
                  Application: Aerial photography and videography, mapping, surveillance, inspection.
              u
                  Example: A drone taking  breathtaking  cinematic  shots  of a landscape  or capturing  detailed  images  of a
              u
                  construction site.

              Thermal Cameras (Infrared Cameras)
                  Description: Detects infrared radiation (heat signatures) instead of visible light. Objects emit heat, making them
              u
                  visible even in darkness or through smoke.
                  Application: Search and rescue (locating people by their body heat in rubble or dense foliage), building inspection
              u
                  (identifying heat leaks), wildlife monitoring, firefighting (identifying hot spots).
                  Example: A drone equipped with a thermal camera scanning a collapsed building after an earthquake to find trapped
              u
                  survivors by their heat signatures.

              LIDAR Sensors
                  Description: Generates precise 3D point clouds of the terrain or objects below, regardless of lighting.
              u
                  Application: High-accuracy 3D mapping and surveying, forestry (measuring tree heights), urban planning, creating
              u
                  detailed digital elevation models.
                  Example: A drone with a LIDAR system flying over a forest to create a precise 3D model of the canopy and ground,
              u
                  helping foresters monitor tree health and growth.

              Multispectral and Hyperspectral Cameras
                  Description:  Capture  light  across  specific,  narrow bands  of  the  electromagnetic  spectrum,  including  visible  and
              u
                  invisible light (like Near-Infrared). Different plant health conditions reflect light differently in these bands.

                  Application: Precision  agriculture  (assessing  crop  health, detecting  plant  stress, identifying  pest  infestations),
              u
                  environmental monitoring, forestry.
                  Example: A drone carrying a multispectral camera flying over a farm. The data is processed by Artificial Intelligence
              u
                  to create “health maps” of the fields, showing where crops are stressed and need water or fertiliser, allowing farmers
                  to apply resources only where needed.

                                           Jetson Thor: A Supercharged “Robot Brain” for Next-Gen Robotics

                                  NVIDIA’s new Jetson Thor module is a compact yet powerful AI computing platform for
                                 robots. Priced at $3,499, it delivers 7.5× more AI performance, triple energy efficiency, and
                    BRAINY                      includes 128 GB RAM—all in a 130-watt edge-AI system.
                     FACT
                                This enables robots to run generative AI models, improve sensing, reasoning, and autonomy—
                                  now being tested by performance leaders like Amazon Robotics, Boston Dynamics, Meta,
                                                                  and John Deere.




              156
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="159"><![CDATA[REBOOT

                    Answer the following questions:
                    1.  How did Unimate change industrial automation?

                    2.  What role do drones play in disaster management?
                    3.  Why are exploration robots important for space science?
                    4.  What are two everyday uses of social robots?
                    5.  Can underwater robots be useful in environmental protection? How?




                 Regulations for Drones
                 As drones become more widespread, ensuring their safe and responsible operation is paramount. Governments
                 worldwide, including India (e.g., through the Directorate General of Civil Aviation - DGCA), have implemented strict
                 regulations. These typically cover:
                 1.  Registration and Licensing: Drones (especially those above a certain weight) and their operators must be
                    registered and often require specific licenses or certifications to ensure accountability and knowledge of rules.
                 2.  No-Fly Zones: Restrictions on flying near airports, military installations, government buildings, and other
                    sensitive areas.
                 3.  Height and Visual Line of Sight Limits: Drones often have maximum altitude limits and must remain within the
                    operator’s visual line of sight to prevent collisions with manned aircraft or other hazards.
                 4.  Privacy Concerns: Regulations address the use of cameras on drones and data collection, protecting
                    individual privacy.
                 5.  Operation Protocols: Rules regarding night flying, flying over crowds, and specific permissions required for
                    commercial operations.
                 6.  Example (Indian Context): In India, the DGCA has a “Drone Rules 2021” framework that classifies drones into
                    different categories (nano, micro, small, medium, large), specifies licensing requirements for pilots (e.g., “Remote
                    Pilot Certificate”), defines “green, yellow, and red zones” for flight permissions, and mandates registration through
                    the “Digital Sky Platform.” This is crucial for managing the growing drone traffic, especially around populated areas
                    like Kota.

                                                     Humanoid Robots Are Becoming Everyday Reality
                                      Once pure science fiction, humanoid robots are steadily entering real-world settings.
                                     Companies like Agility Robotics are deploying humanoids in warehouses and factories,
                      BRAINY       while Tesla’s Optimus, part of a shift in business strategy, aims to contribute significantly to
                       FACT                          company value in manufacturing and home tasks.
                                     Meanwhile, Figure AI’s Helix robot performs logistics work with human-like speed and
                                      memory, with founder Brett Adcock predicting humanoids could soon be as common
                                                                       as people.


                 Applications in Aerial Photography, Agriculture, and Disaster Response

                 Drones are no longer just hobby toys; they are powerful tools transforming industries.
                 Aerial Photography and Videography

                    Role: Capturing stunning, dynamic images and videos from unique perspectives that were previously expensive or
                 u
                    impossible to get (e.g., using helicopters).
                                                                                                                       157
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="160"><![CDATA[Examples:
              u
                     Filmmaking and Journalism: Capturing cinematic shots for movies, documentaries, and news coverage from above.
                     l
                     Real Estate and Tourism: Showcasing properties or tourist destinations from an aerial view to attract customers.
                     l
                     Event Coverage: Providing unique perspectives for concerts, sports events, and public gatherings.
                     l
              Agriculture (Precision Agriculture)

              u   Role: Improving crop management, efficiency, and yields by providing detailed, real-time data from above.
                  Examples:
              u
                     Crop Health Monitoring: Using multispectral cameras to identify stressed crops, detect early signs of disease or
                     l
                     pest infestation, and assess nutrient deficiencies across large fields.
                     Irrigation Management: Identifying areas of fields that are too dry or too wet, allowing farmers to optimise water
                     l
                     usage.
                     Spraying and Fertilisation: Autonomous drones can precisely spray pesticides or fertilisers only where needed,
                     l
                     reducing chemical use and environmental impact.
                     Yield Prediction: Estimating crop yields based on aerial imagery.
                     l
              Disaster Response
                  Role: Providing rapid assessment, search and rescue capabilities, and logistical support in disaster-stricken areas
              u
                  that are often dangerous or inaccessible for human responders.
                  Examples:
              u
                     Damage Assessment: Quickly flying over areas affected by earthquakes, floods, or hurricanes to map the extent
                     l
                     of damage and identify critical infrastructure failures.
                     Search and Rescue: Using thermal cameras to locate survivors trapped under rubble or lost in remote areas, or
                     l
                     delivering small emergency supplies (e.g., first-aid kits) to isolated individuals.
                     Firefighting: Providing  real-time  thermal  views of wildfires to  help firefighters identify  hot  spots  and direct
                     l
                     resources effectively.
                     Hazardous Material Inspection: Inspecting areas contaminated with dangerous substances without putting
                     l
                     human lives at risk.
              In summarization, drones represent the pinnacle of mobile robotics operating in the aerial domain. Their design
              principles combine sophisticated aerodynamics with advanced control systems and a suite of diverse sensors.
              Governed by increasingly stringent regulations for safe skies, drones are no longer futuristic concepts but essential
              tools providing invaluable services in fields ranging from artistic expression to critical life-saving missions, profoundly
              impacting our world from a sky-high perspective.


                                                        ROBOT DYNAMICS

                    Unimate = first industrial robot.
                    Industrial robots: welding, assembly, painting, packaging.
                    Surgical robots help in minimally invasive operations.
                    Rehabilitation robots support patient recovery.
                    Drones = mobile robots for aerial monitoring.

                    Agricultural robots monitor crops and assist in harvesting.
                    Mars Rovers = exploration robots in space.
                    Underwater robots detect leaks, explore marine life.

                    Social robots interact with humans in education, service, and companionship.
                    Robotics impacts industry, healthcare, space, environment, and society.

              158
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="161"><![CDATA[RESEARCH ACTIVITY                                                    21 st
                                                                                       Century   #Coding & Computational Thinking
                  These three activities balance industrial reality (manipulators), hands-on  Skills
                  simulation (mobile robots), and  local/global context (drones)---ensuring students gain both knowledge and
                  application-oriented skills.
                  1.  Industrial Manipulators Case Study
                          Task: Research how robotic arms are used in two different industries (e.g., automobile manufacturing and
                         l
                          electronics assembly). Identify their structure (links, joints, degrees of freedom) and their function (welding,
                          assembly, painting, etc.).
                          Output: A 2–3 page illustrated write-up comparing the two cases, with diagrams or photos.
                         l
                          Learning Outcome: Connect the theory of manipulators to actual industry practices and understand how
                         l
                          design choices support task requirements.
                  2.  Mobile Robot Navigation Experiment
                          Task: Using a simple simulator (like VEXcode VR or an Arduino + ultrasonic sensor setup if available), design
                         l
                          a mobile robot that can detect and avoid obstacles.
                          Output:
                         l
                          §   A flowchart showing the navigation logic.
                          §   Simulation screenshots or a short-recorded video of the robot moving.
                          Learning Outcome: Experience how sensor integration and decision-making (like SLAM basics) help mobile
                         l
                          robots operate safely in real environments.
                  3.  Drone Applications in Local Context
                          Task: Study  how drones  are currently being  used  in India  (agriculture,  delivery,  disaster  response,  or
                         l
                          filmmaking). Choose one area and prepare a mini research project on:
                          §   The drone type (multi-rotor, fixed wing, hybrid).
                          §   Sensor payloads it carries.
                          §   Regulations applied by DGCA (Drone Rules 2021).
                          Output: A 5–7 slide presentation with examples, images, and student’s own conclusion about its future in
                         l
                          India.
                          Learning Outcome: Understand the link between drone design, legal regulations, and their practical
                         l
                          impact in solving real-world problems.










                                                             AT A GLANCE

                        Manipulators are the parts of the robot that physically interact with the world, performing tasks that often
                        mimic human arm movements.
                        Kinematics deals with the geometry of motion without considering the forces that cause the motion.
                        Mobile robots are machines designed to move and interact with their environment by changing their
                        physical location.
                        Mobile robots are transforming Logistics, Transportation, and Search and Rescue Operations sectors due
                        to their ability to automate tasks that require movement and adaptability.



                                                                                                                      159
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="162"><![CDATA[EXERCISE




                                                                                                 Solved Questions
                                                SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                 QUIZ
              A.  Tick ( ) the correct option.

                  1.  The first industrial robot used in automobile assembly lines was:
                       i.  Atlas                                       ii.  Unimate
                      iii.  Sophia                                    iv.  Optimus

                  2.  Robots used for medical surgeries are called:
                       i.  Mobile robots                               ii.  Surgical robots

                      iii.  Humanoid robots                           iv.  Assistive robots

                  3.  Drones used for aerial photography are an example of:
                       i.  Mobile robots                               ii.  Social robots

                      iii.  Industrial manipulators                   iv.  None of these

                  4.  Which type of robot is typically used in warehouses for moving goods?
                       i.  Humanoid                                    ii.  Autonomous mobile robots

                      iii.  Social robots                             iv.  Space robots
                  5.  Mars Rovers are categorised as:

                       i.  Industrial robots                           ii.  Exploration robots
                      iii.  Agricultural robots                       iv.  Humanoids

                  6.  Robots designed to interact with humans in customer service are called:
                       i.  Social robots                               ii.  Industrial robots

                      iii.  Manipulators                              iv.  Space robots

                  7.  Which of the following is an application of underwater robots?
                       i.  Assembling cars                             ii.  Detecting oil leaks

                      iii.  Providing customer service                iv.  Teaching students

                  8.  The robotic arm used in electronics assembly is an example of:
                       i.  Mobile robot                                ii.  Industrial manipulator

                      iii.  Drone                                     iv.  Social robot

                  9.  Which country has extensively used robots in disaster response, such as Fukushima?
                       i.  Japan                                       ii.  USA
                      iii.  Germany                                   iv.  India







              160
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="163"><![CDATA[10.  Agricultural robots are used for:
                         i.  Harvesting crops                            ii.  Flying planes

                        iii.  Playing games                             iv.  Manufacturing chips

                 B.  Fill in the blanks.

                    1.  The first industrial robot was named               .
                    2.  Robots that assist doctors in surgery are called             robots.

                    3.  Drones are also known as                  aerial vehicles.
                    4.  Warehouse logistics often use                 robots to move goods.

                    5.  The Curiosity Rover was designed for exploring the planet             .
                    6.  Social robots are designed to interact with             .

                    7.  Robots used in underwater exploration help in detecting              leaks.
                    8.  Industrial manipulators are commonly used in the                industry.

                    9.  Agricultural robots are sometimes referred to as              bots.

                    10.  Robots in disaster management help in ensuring human               .
                 C.  State whether these statements are true or false.

                    1.  Industrial manipulators are mainly used in agriculture.
                    2.  Drones are classified as mobile robots.

                    3.  Humanoid robots are the only type of robots used in healthcare.
                    4.  Robots can be deployed in hazardous environments to protect humans.

                    5.  Mars Rovers are examples of exploration robots.

                 D.  Match the following:
                    1.  Unimate                                a.  Exploring Mars
                    2.  Surgical Robot                         b.  Customer interaction

                    3.  Social Robot                           c.  Automobile industry
                    4.  Mars Rover                             d.  Underwater exploration
                    5.  Underwater Robot                       e.  Medical operations


                                                  SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)

                 A.  Short answer type questions.
                    1.  What was the significance of Unimate in industrial history?

                        Ans.   Unimate: It was the world’s first industrial robot, introduced in the 1960s in automobile manufacturing,
                             revolutionizing automation.
                    2.  Define surgical robots with one example.
                        Ans.  Surgical robots: Assist doctors in performing minimally invasive operations. Example:  Da Vinci
                             Surgical System.




                                                                                                                       161
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="164"><![CDATA[3.  How are drones applied in everyday life?
                     Ans.  Drones: Used for aerial photography, delivery services, agriculture monitoring, and disaster response.

                  4.  What is the role of social robots?
                     Ans.  Social robots: Robots designed to interact with humans, e.g., providing customer service, companionship,
                           or assistance in education.
                  5.  Mention two applications of underwater robots.

                     Ans.  Underwater robots: Used for detecting oil leaks, inspecting pipelines, and marine research.
                  6.  Why are exploration robots important for space research?
                     Ans.  Exploration robots: Important for exploring planets like Mars, collecting data where humans cannot go.

              B.  Long answer type questions.

                  1.  Discuss the different applications of industrial robots in manufacturing.
                     Ans.  Industrial robots in manufacturing: Perform welding, painting, assembly, packaging, and material
                           handling. They increase productivity, precision, and safety.
                  2.  Explain the role of robots in healthcare with examples.

                     Ans.  Robots in healthcare: Surgical robots (Da Vinci system), rehabilitation robots, and robotic exoskeletons
                           improve accuracy, reduce recovery time, and assist patients.
                  3.  Describe the use of drones in agriculture and disaster management.
                     Ans.  Drones in agriculture and disaster management: Monitor crop health, spray fertilizers, and assess
                           disaster-affected areas quickly. Provide aerial views and reach inaccessible zones.

                  4.  Compare social robots with humanoid robots in terms of their applications.
                     Ans.  Social vs Humanoid robots: Social robots interact with humans but may not look human-like
                           (e.g., Pepper robot). Humanoid robots resemble humans physically and can perform both research and
                           service tasks.
                  5.  Write in detail about space exploration robots and their contributions.

                     Ans.  Space exploration robots: Mars Rovers (Curiosity, Perseverance) and robotic arms on ISS gather
                           scientific data, explore terrain, and support missions without risking astronauts.

                                                                                                     21 st
              C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                             Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                    Skills
                    1.   Imagine you are designing a robot for disaster management after an earthquake. What features and sensors
                     would you include?
                     Ans.  Disaster management robot: Should include sensors (infrared for survivors, cameras, gas detectors)
                           and features (mobility on rough terrain, grippers, wireless communication).
                    2.   Your school plans to use drones for campus security. Suggest a design, with sensors and control system,
                     explaining how it will function effectively.

                     Ans.  School security drone: Equipped with cameras, night vision, motion sensors, and GPS. Controlled via a
                           closed-loop system, it can patrol, detect unusual activity, and alert security staff.








              162
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="165"><![CDATA[Unsolved Questions
                                                  SECTION A   (Objective Type Questions)
                   QUIZ
                 A.  Tick ( ) the correct option.

                    1.  The first industrial robot Unimate was primarily used for:
                         i.  Painting cars                               ii.  Welding tasks in automobile factories

                        iii.  Performing surgeries                      iv.  Delivering packages

                    2.  Which robotic system is most widely used for minimally invasive surgeries?
                         i.  Asimo                                       ii.  Da Vinci
                        iii.  Curiosity Rover                           iv.  Pepper

                    3.  A drone used for spraying fertilizers in agriculture is an example of a:
                         i.  Social robot                                ii.  Mobile robot

                        iii.  Humanoid robot                            iv.  Exploration robot

                    4.  Robots deployed for oil leak detection in oceans belong to:
                         i.  Social robots                               ii.  Underwater robots

                        iii.  Space robots                              iv.  Industrial manipulators

                    5.  Which country is recognized as a global leader in adopting industrial robots?
                         i.  USA                                         ii.  Japan

                        iii.  India                                     iv.  France
                    6.  Robots like Pepper are specifically designed for:

                         i.  Deep-sea mining                             ii.  Human interaction and customer service
                        iii.  Welding and assembly                      iv.  Autonomous driving

                    7.  Which robot explored Mars and sent high-resolution images back to Earth?
                         i.  Da Vinci                                    ii.  Curiosity Rover

                        iii.  Pepper                                    iv.  Atlas

                    8.  Which is NOT an application of drones?
                         i.  Aerial photography                          ii.  Agricultural spraying

                        iii.  Robotic welding                           iv.  Disaster monitoring

                    9.  Industrial manipulators usually have:
                         i.  Grippers or welding torches as end-effectors

                         ii.  Cameras as primary end-effectors
                        iii.  Medical tools permanently attached

                        iv.  Propellers like drones





                                                                                                                      163
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="166"><![CDATA[10.  Rehabilitation robots are mainly used for:
                       i.  Training students                           ii.  Assisting patients in physical recovery

                      iii.  Exploring volcanoes                       iv.  Assembling smartphones

              B.  Fill in the blanks.
                  1.                    was the first industrial robot introduced in automobile manufacturing.

                  2.  The Da Vinci robot is famous for assisting in             surgeries.
                  3.  Mobile robots used in disaster management are often called               robots.
                  4.  Aerial vehicles without pilots are commonly referred to as           .

                  5.  Underwater robots help detect                 in pipelines.
                  6.  A robot designed to interact socially with humans is called a            robot.
                  7.  Mars rovers are an example of                 robots.
                  8.  Industrial robots improve                 by performing repetitive tasks with precision.
                  9.  Drones in agriculture can monitor                health.

                  10.  Social robots often use               recognition to interact with people.
              C.  State whether these statements are true or false.

                  1.  Industrial robots are mainly used in automobile, electronics, and food industries.
                  2.  Social robots cannot be programmed to provide educational assistance.
                  3.  Drones are limited only to entertainment purposes.
                  4.  Rehabilitation robots are used in patient recovery therapies.
                  5.  Space robots reduce the risk to human astronauts.

              D.  Match the following:

                  1.  Unimate                                a.  Disaster response
                  2.  Da Vinci                               b.  Customer interaction
                  3.  Curiosity Rover                        c.  Automobile manufacturing
                  4.  Social Robot                           d.  Space exploration on Mars
                  5.  Drones                                 e.  Minimally invasive surgeries


                                                SECTION B   (Subjective Type Questions)

              A.  Short answer type questions.
                  1.  Why was Unimate considered a landmark in industrial robotics?
                  2.  List two advantages of using surgical robots in healthcare.

                  3.  How do underwater robots contribute to environmental protection?
                  4.  Differentiate between social robots and humanoid robots with examples.
                  5.  What role do drones play in modern agriculture?

              B.  Long answer type questions.
                  1.  Discuss the major applications of industrial robots and explain how they transformed global manufacturing.
                  2.  Evaluate the role of robotic systems in healthcare, covering both surgical and rehabilitation applications.

                  3.   Compare the significance of drones, space robots, and underwater robots in extending human capabilities
                     beyond natural limits.
              164
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="167"><![CDATA[21 st
                 C.  Competency-based questions:     HOTS                                             Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                                      Skills
                    1.   Your city wants to deploy robots for disaster management after floods. Suggest which robotic systems should
                        be used (drones, underwater robots, mobile robots) and justify with features.
                    2.   A hospital is planning to invest in surgical robots. As a consultant, prepare a short recommendation highlighting
                        the benefits, challenges, and impact on patient care.




                                                           ROBOT APPLICATIONS ROLEPLAY

                   Each student picks a role: doctor, farmer, astronaut, factory manager, or shopkeeper.
                   Think of a robot that could help in your role.
                   Present your robot idea in 2–3 lines to the class.Lesson: Robotics applications are everywhere, from factories to
                   farms to space.



                                                                                                      21 st
                                                                                                    Century   #Digital Literacy
                                  By utilising advanced sensors, cameras, and AI-based navigation systems,  Skills
                                  AMRs can autonomously navigate warehouse environments, moving goods with remarkable
                                  speed and accuracy. This reduces human error and optimises inventory management by
                                  automating tasks such as sorting, picking, and transporting materials. What potential risks arise
                      deep        from the use of mobile robots, particularly in environments with limited space or where human
                   thinking       workers are nearby, and how can these risks be managed?


                                                                                    21 st
                   LAB ACTIVITY                                                    Century   #Coding & Computational Thinking
                                                                                    Skills
                      “Mini Drone/Delivery Simulation”
                         l Tools: Free online simulator (like DroneBlocks or CoDrone EDU simulator).
                         l Task: Program a virtual drone to take off, move forward, turn, and land.
                         l Steps:
                         1.  Open simulator and select “Block Coding” mode.
                         2.  Drag blocks: Take off → Fly forward → Turn → Land.

                         3.  Run and observe drone path.
                         l Outcome: Students  see  real-world  applications of mobile robots  (like  delivery  drones) in a safe virtual
                         environment.





                     Answers
                  Exercise (Solved)
                  A.  1. ii   2. ii   3. i   4. ii   5. ii   6. i   7. ii   8. ii   9. i   10. i
                  B.  1.  Unimate    2.  Surgical     3.  Unmanned        4.  Autonomous mobile       5.  Mars
                      6.  Humans      7.  Oil         8.  Automobile      9.  Agri                   10.  Safety
                  C.  1.  False      2.  True         3.  False           4.  True                    5.  True
                  D.  1. c   2. e   3. b   4. a   5. d


                                                                                                                      165
                                                                                                Applications of Robotic Systems]]></page><page Index="168"><![CDATA[21 st   #Coding & Computational Thinking
                      project 3                                                  Century   # Experiential learning
                                                                                  Skills
                                                  The Automated Greenhouse System
                  Objective: Build a simplified, automated greenhouse system that can monitor environmental conditions
                  (temperature, humidity, soil moisture) and perform an action (e.g., turn on a water pump) based on the readings.
                  Steps of the Solution:
                  1.  Project Planning & Design (Project Management):
                         Define the Scope: The system will monitor three parameters and control a single actuator.
                         l
                         Component Selection:
                         l
                         §   Brain: A microcontroller (like a Raspberry Pi Pico or an Arduino Uno) is ideal for this.
                             Senses: Choose a temperature sensor, a humidity sensor, and a soil moisture sensor.
                         §
                         §   Muscles: A simple water pump and a relay module to switch the pump on and off.
                         §   Power: A suitable power adapter and an external power source for the pump.
                         Structure: A small, transparent container or a wooden frame can serve as the “greenhouse.”
                         l
                  2.  Hardware Assembly & Wiring:
                         Connect Sensors: Wire all three sensors to the microcontroller's analog and digital input pins.
                         l
                         Connect Actuator: Connect the water pump to the relay module, and the relay module to a digital output
                         l
                         pin on the microcontroller. The relay acts as a safety switch, allowing the microcontroller to control the
                         high-power pump with a low-power signal.
                  3.  Programming & Control (Fundamentals, Logic, Systems):
                         Sensor Reading: Write code to read the values from each sensor. The soil moisture sensor will provide an analog
                        l
                         reading, which will be converted to a digital number by the microcontroller's Analog-to-Digital Converter.
                         Decision-Making Algorithm: Use a combination of Boolean operators to create the control logic.
                         l
                         Pseudocode:
                         l
                     LOOP forever:
                     read soil_moisture_level
                     read temperature_level
                     read humidity_level
                         IF soil_moisture_level IS below_threshold AND temperature_level IS above_threshold
                         THEN turn_on_pump
                         ELSE
                         turn_off_pump
                     END IF
                     END LOOP
                         Time-Based Control: Use the microcontroller's timers to schedule sensor readings at regular intervals
                         l
                         (e.g., every minute) to conserve power and avoid unnecessary checks.
                  4.  Debugging & Testing (Ensuring Performance):
                         Unit Testing: Test each sensor to ensure it provides accurate readings. Test the relay module to ensure it
                         l
                         can switch the pump on and off correctly.
                         System Testing: Place the system in the greenhouse and monitor its performance. Pour some water and
                         l
                         check if the sensor reading changes. Allow the soil to dry out and verify that the pump turns on and waters
                         the plant automatically.
                       These projects will not only solidify a student's understanding of robotics but also demonstrate the practical
                     applications of the concepts we have covered, from the ground up.


              166
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="169"><![CDATA[21 st   #Coding & Computational Thinking
                         project 4                                                 Century   # Experiential learning
                                                                                    Skills
                                            A 3D-Printed Robot Chassis Design (Tinkercad-Based)
                    Objective: Design a functional, 3D-printable chassis for a small mobile robot using the Tinkercad platform. This
                    project focuses on the crucial Computer-Aided Design (CAD) phase of robotics, allowing you to apply concepts
                    of degrees of freedom, materials, and mechanical design in a virtual space.
                    Steps of the Solution:
                    1.  Project Planning & Design:
                           Scope: Design a basic rectangular chassis with mounting points for components. The chassis should be
                           l
                           strong enough to hold the weight of the components.
                           Components to Mount: You'll need to design mounting holes for a battery pack, a small microcontroller
                           l
                           (like an Arduino Nano or Uno), two Direct Current motors with gearboxes, and a castor wheel.
                           Materials: You will be designing the model in a virtual space, but it will be designed for a specific material
                           l
                           like Plastic (PLA or ABS), which is commonly used in 3D printing. This means you must consider factors
                           like wall thickness and strength.
                    2.  3D Modeling in Tinkercad:
                           Create the Base: Start with a simple rectangular box shape from the basic shapes library. Manipulate its
                           l
                           dimensions (scaling) to create the main chassis plate.
                           Mounting Holes for Motors: Create two cylinder 'hole' shapes. Use the move and rotation tools (applying
                           l
                           degrees  of freedom) to  position  them  precisely  where  the motors  would be mounted  on the chassis.
                           Use the 'group' tool to subtract these holes from the chassis plate.
                           Mounting for Microcontroller: Create mounting holes for the Arduino board. You can find the exact
                           l
                           dimensions of an Arduino board's mounting holes online to ensure accuracy.
                           Mounting for the Castor Wheel: Design a small mounting plate on the chassis for the castor wheel.
                           l
                           The move tool will be essential for placing this plate at the right location (e.g., at the front or back of
                           the chassis).
                           Create Structural Supports: Add some vertical ribs or walls (using rectangular prisms) to the sides of the
                           l
                           chassis to increase its rigidity and prevent it from flexing under the weight of the components. This is a key
                           part of mechanical design.
                    3.  Refinement and Finalization:
                           Virtual Checks: Use the Tinkercad platform to check your design from all angles to ensure there are no
                           l
                           clashes or misalignments.
                           Export: Once you are satisfied with the design, export the model as an .stl file. This is the standard file
                           l
                           format for 3D printing.
                    4.  Optional: 3D Printing and Assembly:
                           If you have access to a 3D printer, you can print the chassis.
                           l
                           Once printed, you can assemble the physical components (motors, microcontroller, battery, etc.) into
                           l
                           your custom-designed chassis to bring your robot to life.












                                                                                                                       167
                                                                                                                  Project 4]]></page><page Index="170"><![CDATA[ASSIGNMENTS







                                                                                       21 st   #Coding & Computational Thinking
              Assignment 1   Smart Campus Assistant Robot                             Century   #Digital Literacy
                                                                                       Skills
              Theme: Sustainable, smart school operations (delivery + energy saving + simple attendance).
              A.  Plan & Choose Your Build Path
                  1.  Define scope (write in notebook):
                         Campus delivery of light items (~500 g)
                     °
                         Obstacle avoidance in corridors
                     °
                         Energy saving (auto lights/fans in a demo room)
                     °
                         Basic attendance (choose one: RFID [Arduino-friendly] or QR [Raspberry Pi-friendly])
                     °
                  2.  Pick platform:
                         Arduino UNO   best for motor control + RFID attendance
                     °
                         Raspberry Pi 4/3 + Camera   best for QR/Face attendance with Python
                     °
                  3.  Decide environment:
                         Hardware build (preferred) or Tinkercad Circuits simulation (for logic proof).
                     °
              B.  Minimum Bill of Materials (choose per platform)
                     Common (both): 2× DC geared motors + caster wheel, chassis, L298N motor driver, HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor
                     l
                     or 2× IR distance sensors, 1× micro servo (for lid/mini-arm), 1× LDR + 10kΩ resistor (voltage divider), 1× 1-channel
                     relay module (for lamp/fan demo at low voltage), 7–12V battery pack, jumper wires, breadboard.
                     Arduino path: Arduino UNO, MFRC522 RFID kit (if RFID chosen).
                     l
                     Raspberry Pi path: Raspberry Pi (with 5V 3A supply), Pi Camera or USB webcam (if QR chosen), microSD with
                     l
                     Raspberry Pi OS.
              Safety note: For the “energy saving” demo, use a low-voltage bulb/LED strip through a relay or a safe training mains
              panel under teacher supervision.
              C.  Mechanical Setup
                  1.  Assemble the chassis; mount motors and caster.
                  2.  Fix sensor mounts: ultrasonic at front center (or two IR sensors angled ~15° outward).
                  3.  Add a top tray/box (cardboard/acrylic) with a servo-driven lid for payload.
                  4.  Keep wiring length tidy; secure the battery low and centered for stability.
              D.  Electronics & Wiring (high-level map)
                  1.  Power: Battery   L298N (VIN). L298N 5V out (if available)   logic rails; or use a separate 5V regulator.
                  2.  Motors: Motor A/B   L298N outputs. L298N IN1–IN4   controller GPIOs.
                  3.  Sensors:
                         Ultrasonic: Trig + Echo   controller GPIOs; Vcc 5V; GND shared.
                     °
                         IR pair (alt): OUT pins   GPIOs.
                     °
                  4.  Servo (lid): Signal   PWM pin; Vcc 5V; common ground.
                  5.  LDR  light  sensing: LDR  + 10kΩ resistor  as a  voltage  divider    analog input  (Arduino) or MCP3008  ADC
                                                                         2
                     (for Raspberry Pi) or use a digital light sensor (BH1750) via I C.
                  6.  Relay: IN ‡ GPIO; Vcc 5V; use low-voltage load for demo.



              168
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="171"><![CDATA[7.  Attendance option:
                           RFID (Arduino): MFRC522 module via SPI (SDA, SCK, MOSI, MISO, RST) to respective pins.
                        °
                           QR (Pi): Connect camera; no extra wiring.
                        °
                 E.  Software Setup
                        Arduino path: Install Arduino IDE   libraries: NewPing (ultrasonic), Servo, MFRC522 (RFID).
                        l
                        Raspberry Pi path: Boot Pi OS   sudo apt install python3-opencv python3-pip   pip install gpiozero qrcode
                        l
                        pyzbar (or opencv-python)   enable camera in raspi-config.
                 F.  Control Logic (write first as blocks/flowcharts)
                    1.  Main loop (navigation):
                           Read front distance (or left/right IR).
                        °
                           If distance < threshold   stop   turn away (short reverse + spin)   continue.
                        °
                           Else drive forward with PWM for smooth motion.
                        °
                    2.  Servo lid:
                           On button press or arrival flag   servo open   wait   close.
                        °
                    3.  Energy saver:
                           Read LDR (ambient light).
                        °
                           If dark and motion (optional PIR) detected   relay ON; else OFF.
                        °
                    4.  Attendance (choose one):
                           RFID: On tag detect   log ID + timestamp to Serial/SD.
                        °
                           QR (Pi): Capture frame   decode QR   log to CSV + show status.
                        °
                 G.  Step-by-Step Execution (Arduino path example)
                    1.   Test modules individually:
                           a) Blink test; b) Read ultrasonic; c) Spin motors via L298N; d) Move servo; e) Toggle relay; f) Read RFID tag.
                        °
                    2.  Integrate mobility:
                           Combine ultrasonic + motors   basic obstacle avoidance (forward/turn).
                        °
                    3.  Add servo lid:
                           Trigger via push-button; verify open/close angles (e.g., 0°/90°).
                        °
                    4.  Add energy saver:
                           Calibrate LDR threshold (note ADC value for lights ON/OFF).
                        °
                    5.  Add RFID attendance:
                           Store known tag IDs; print “Present: Name” on serial/LCD; optional SD log.
                        °
                    6.  Full system run:
                           Start robot   navigate corridor model (masking tape lanes)   stop at a “delivery spot” mark   open lid
                        °
                           return   attendance check at a station   energy saver demo in a darkened box/room.
                    7.  Tuning:
                           Adjust ultrasonic threshold, motor PWM, servo angles, LDR threshold.
                        °
                    8.  Document:
                           Block diagram, wiring photo, flowcharts, evidence (serial logs/video), and a 1-page reflection (what worked/
                        °
                           what to improve).
                 H.  Step-by-Step Execution (Raspberry Pi path example)
                    1.  GPIO quick tests with gpiozero: LED blink   motor driver control.
                    2.  Camera test: OpenCV preview   capture frame   save.
                    3.  QR decode: Use pyzbar/OpenCV to read sample QR; write CSV log.
                    4.  Ultrasonic or IR read: Print distance/proximity; define threshold.


                                                                                                                      169
                                                                                                               Assignments]]></page><page Index="172"><![CDATA[5.  Mobility loop: Distance-based obstacle avoidance with PWM (via pigpio or L298N enable pins).
                  6.  Energy saver: Read BH1750/LDR-ADC   toggle relay.
                  7.   Integrate  and  run  end-to-end: Move    avoid    handle QR attendance  at  a checkpoint    demonstrate
                     energy saver.
                  8.  Document & demo video.
              I.  Validation Checklist (teacher rubric snapshot)
                     Movement stable ( ) | Obstacle avoidance reliable ( ) | Servo mechanism works ( ) | Attendance logs correctly
                     l
                     ( ) | Energy saver responds to light changes ( ) | Clear documentation ( )


                                                                                    Lid
                                          Ultrasonic Sensor
                                                                                       Servo



                                                                                          RFID
                                           LDR


                                      DC Motor






                                        Motor
                                                                                         Car
                                           Arduino Uno




                                                    Smart Campus Assistant Robot

                                                                                       21 st   #Coding & Computational Thinking
              Assignment 2   Disaster Response Drone Simulation                       Century
                                                                                       Skills  #Digital Literacy
              Theme: Search-and-rescue planning with safe, school-friendly simulators.
              A.  Plan & Scenario Setup
                  1.  Define a disaster map: 10×10 grid with blocked cells (debris), safe paths, and targets (survivor markers).
                  2.  Select simulator:
                         DroneBlocks (block coding), CoDrone EDU, or VEXcode VR (Drone/Robot variant).
                     °
                         Optional Python vision add-on with OpenCV for image/marker detection (Pi/PC camera).
                     °
              B.  Mission Requirements (write as specs)
                     Autonomous grid search (lawnmower/zig-zag or spiral).
                     l
                     Obstacle avoidance (skip blocked cells or altitude adjust).
                     l
                     Detect target (colored marker/QR in sim or via image detection).
                     l
                     Raise alert/log (on-screen message, CSV log, or simulated beacon drop).
                     l
              C.  Algorithm Design (paper first   then blocks/code)
                  1.  State machine: TAKEOFF   SEARCH   DETECT   AID_DROP (optional)   RETURN_HOME   LAND.
                  2.  SEARCH strategy:
                         Zig-zag (lawnmower): for row in 1..N   sweep left   right then right   left.
                     °
                         Skip/route around blocked cells (predefined in array).
                     °

              170
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="173"><![CDATA[3.  DETECT logic:
                           In sim: check tile color/object API.
                        °
                           With OpenCV: color threshold or QR decode; if found   mark GPS (grid coords) and alert.
                        °
                 D.  Step-by-Step Build (Simulator first)
                    1.  Place obstacles/targets in sim map.
                    2.  Write TAKEOFF routine (altitude set or default).
                    3.  Code SEARCH loop:
                           Move 1 cell (or fixed distance), sense tile/object; log coordinates.
                        °
                           Turn at row ends; continue until full coverage or target found.
                        °
                    4.  Obstacle handling:
                           When obstacle flag = true   skip to next navigable cell; or implement “detour” subroutine (right-hand wall
                        °
                           follow for 3 steps   resume sweep).
                    5.  DETECTION:
                           If target found   hover, log, beep/print alert; optionally “drop aid” (sim API).
                        °
                    6.  RETURN_HOME:
                           Navigate back to start via shortest path (simple reverse trace or Manhattan path).
                        °
                    7.  LAND and export mission log (time, visited cells, detections).
                 E.  Optional Python Vision Add-On (PC or Raspberry Pi)
                    1.  Print/display markers (QR or colored cards) on the floor/table.
                    2.  Capture frames (webcam/PiCam) while moving a toy drone/robot or by simulating frames.
                    3.  OpenCV flow:
                           For color marker: convert to HSV   threshold   contour   compute centroid.
                        °
                           For QR: pyzbar.decode(frame)   get data   log.
                        °
                    4.  Decision: If marker detected   emulate “hover/aid drop” and log coordinates/time.
                 F.  Testing Protocol
                    1.  Dry run on a 5×5 grid; verify full coverage (no cells skipped).
                    2.  Inject obstacles in 3 random positions; confirm detour routine works.
                    3.  Hide targets (1–3 positions); measure time-to-detection; verify alert/log.
                    4.  Edge cases: target at border; obstacle near start; no target (mission completes cleanly).
                 G.  Documentation & Deliverables
                    1.  Algorithm & flowchart (state machine + search + detection).
                    2.  Block code/Python script screenshots.
                    3.  Mission log (CSV/table: step, cell, detection flag, note).
                    4.  2�3 minute video screen-capture of mission run.
                    5.  Reflection sheet: What improved detection? What failed? Next iteration?
                 H.  Extension (for achievers)
                        Multi-target search with priority zones.
                        l
                        Add battery constraint (simulate: must return when steps > threshold).
                        l
                        Introduce no-fly zones and altitude changes.
                        l
                        Fuse two sensors (e.g., simulated Lidar + camera) and compare accuracy.
                        l
                 I.  Assessment Checklist (teacher quick rubric)
                        Robust  coverage  path  ( ) | Correct  obstacle  behaviour  ( ) | Reliable  detection  & alert  () | Clean  landing  &
                        l
                        log ( ) | Documentation clarity ( )



                                                                                                                       171
                                                                                                               Assignments]]></page><page Index="174"><![CDATA[VIVA VOCE









                  1.  What makes a robot different from a simple machine?
                     Ans.  Robots can be programmed and automated to perform tasks with sensors, controllers, and actuators,
                           unlike machines which perform only fixed mechanical work.
                  2.  Why is the term “robot” linked with the idea of forced labor?
                     Ans.  The word comes from the Czech term robota meaning forced labor, introduced in Karel Čapek’s play
                           R.U.R. in 1921.
                  3.  Explain degrees of freedom (DOF) in robotics with an example.
                     Ans.  DOF = independent movements possible. Example: A human arm has 7 DOF (shoulder 3, elbow 1, wrist 3).

                  4.  How does workspace differ from payload in a robot?
                     Ans.  Workspace is the reachable area of the end-effector; payload is the maximum weight the robot
                           can handle.
                  5.  Why are omni and mecanum wheels important for mobile robots?
                     Ans.  They allow sideways and diagonal movement without turning the chassis, enabling high mobility in
                           tight spaces.
                  6.  What role do algorithms play in robotic computing?

                     Ans.  Algorithms are step-by-step instructions that define how the robot processes input and produces
                           output.
                  7.  Differentiate between microcontrollers and single-board computers.
                     Ans.  Microcontrollers (e.g., Arduino) are for real-time sensor/actuator control, while SBCs (e.g., Raspberry
                           Pi) handle complex tasks, multitasking, AI.
                  8.  Why is Boolean logic the foundation of computing in robots?
                     Ans.  It reduces decisions to true/false outcomes using logic gates (AND, OR, NOT), enabling robots to execute
                           binary instructions.
                  9.  How does PWM control motor speed?

                     Ans.  By varying the duty cycle of voltage pulses, PWM regulates average power to motors, adjusting speed
                           smoothly.

                  10.  What is the difference between open-loop and closed-loop control?
                     Ans.  Open-loop has no feedback (e.g., toaster timer); closed-loop uses feedback sensors (e.g., AC thermostat)
                           for accuracy.
                  11.  Why are servo motors suitable for robotic arms?
                     Ans.  They provide precise angular positioning with feedback, essential for tasks like gripping or welding.

                  12.  Give two practical applications of ultrasonic sensors in robotics.
                     Ans.  Obstacle detection in autonomous vehicles and distance measurement in parking assistance systems.
                  13.  Why was the Unimate robot historically significant?
                     Ans.  It was the first industrial robot (1961) used in automobile welding, starting automation in manufacturing.



              172
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="175"><![CDATA[14.  How do surgical robots improve healthcare?
                        Ans.  They enable minimally invasive surgeries, high precision, reduced recovery time, and less human error.
                    15.  Differentiate between humanoid and social robots.

                        Ans.  Humanoids resemble human form (e.g., Atlas). Social robots focus on human interaction (e.g., Pepper).
                    16.  Why are exploration robots crucial in space science?
                        Ans.  They operate in hostile, unreachable environments, gather data, and reduce astronaut risks (e.g.,
                              Mars Rovers).
                    17.  What is the importance of material choice in robot design?

                        Ans.  Materials affect strength, weight, cost, and efficiency. Example: aluminium for lightweight drones, steel
                              for heavy arms.

                    18.  How can robots support agriculture?
                        Ans.  Through crop monitoring, precision spraying, harvesting, and soil analysis using drones and ground
                              bots.
                    19.  Why is feedback essential in robotics?
                        Ans.  Feedback ensures accuracy, stability, and adaptability in tasks, e.g., robot arms maintaining correct
                              grip force.
                    20. Explain the role of sensors as “robot senses.”
                        Ans.  Sensors act like human senses by detecting light, distance, sound, or touch, enabling robots to perceive
                              environments.

                    21.  How does pseudocode help in robotics programming?
                        Ans.  It bridges human logic and machine code, ensuring clarity before writing actual program code.
                    22.  What is meant by the term “end-effector”?
                        Ans.  The tool attached at a robot’s arm end that interacts with the environment (gripper, welding
                              torch, scalpel).
                    23.  How do underwater robots protect the environment?

                        Ans.  They detect oil leaks, monitor marine life, inspect pipelines, preventing ecological disasters.
                    24.  Why is balance between DOF and payload crucial?
                        Ans.  More DOF increases flexibility but reduces structural stability for heavy loads; balance ensures efficiency.
                    25.  Imagine you are designing a campus security robot. Which systems would you integrate?
                        Ans.  Mechanical mobility (wheels), sensors (IR, ultrasonic, camera), computing system (Raspberry Pi with
                              AI vision), control system (closed-loop motor control), and applications (patrolling, surveillance).























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                                                                                                                 Viva Voce]]></page><page Index="176"><![CDATA[GLOSSARY








              A
              ACCELEROMETER: A sensor that measures acceleration forces, typically used to figure out which way your robot is
              going. Won’t tell your robot which way is correct, though.
              ACTUATOR: An electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic device that makes a robot move. Examples include a simple motor
              that makes a wheel turn; a cylinder with a shaft inside that creates motion in a straight line; and a combination of
              motors and gears that make a robot leg kick. See also “Compliant” and “Servo.”
              ALGORITHM: A step-by-step procedure to calculate something, process some data, or make a decision. Implemented
              as code running on the robot’s control system.

              ANDROID: A robot designed to look and act like a human. Generally, an android has a flesh-like appearance, as
              opposed to a metal or plastic body of humanoid robots. Think Lieutenant Commander Data versus Honda Asimo. See
              also “Uncanny Valley.”
              ANIMATRONIC: A robotic system designed to mimic something living. Usually refers to something non-anthropomorphic.
              Usually is a dinosaur.

              ANTHROPOMORPHISM: The tendency of people to attribute human characteristics to things that aren’t human. If you
              look at the stereo cameras on a robot and think that’s where its face is, that’s anthropomorphizing.

              ARDUINO: A low-cost microcontroller board, popular with hobbyists. Can serve as the brain of a robot that you build
              yourself from scratch.

              AI: Artificial intelligence. The art and science of making machines smart. The holy grail of AI is achieving a level of
              reasoning, learning, and knowledge comparable to that of a human. In practice, the most notable AI systems are
              specialized tools and a computer program that pretends to be a psychotherapist.

              AUTOMATON: A machine that operates by itself, generally differentiated from a robot in that an automaton doesn’t
              necessarily include any form of intelligence, but simply carries out a predefined mechanical action.
              AUV: Autonomous underwater vehicle. Typically looks like a torpedo and is used for science and exploration. Designation
              can also include ROVs, or remotely operated underwater vehicles, which don’t look like torpedoes but rather resemble
              a car engine with stubby arms.
              B

              BACKDRIVABLE: A motor or actuator that can be moved by an external force when it’s operational. If you push on a
              robot arm that is backdrivable, it will sense the forces and move in the direction you’re pushing. See also “Compliant.”
              BACKLASH: Gearing systems are never perfect, and backlash refers to the amount of slop or play that you get due
              to the gear teeth not intermeshing perfectly. Sometimes backlash is desirable (to allow lubricants to circulate), and
              sometimes it’s not (if it causes vibrations). Most times it’s inevitable.
              BIOROBOTICS: Robots that incorporate features or behaviors found in biological organisms. Also known as bio-inspired
              or biomimetic robots.
              BMI: A brain-machine interface, also called a brain-computer interface, uses either invasive or noninvasive sensors to
              enable humans to directly control robotic prostheses and other systems using brain activity alone.





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                 CARTESIAN ROBOT: A type of robot that only moves in straight lines at right angles, following coordinates on a—you
                 guessed it—Cartesian plane. This simplicity makes them straightforward to build and program, especially in large
                 sizes. Also known as a linear robot.
                 CHEMBOTS: A DARPA program seeking to create robots that are soft, flexible, and capable of stuffing themselves
                 through openings much smaller than they are.
                 COMPLIANT: A robot is said to be compliant when it’s not completely rigid and can sense and control the forces it
                 applies on things. If you put your hand in front of a compliant robot, the resistance from your hand will make it stop. If
                 you put your hand in front of a non-compliant robot, it’s going to hurt. See also “Series Elastic Actuator.”
                 CONTROL: Automatic control refers to the theoretical and practical tools used to make machines behave like we want
                 them to. Control involves creating abstract models of a system, using mathematical tools and computer simulations
                 to understand its behavior, and devising a controller to make it act in a desired way. See also “Feedback” and “Nyquist
                 Plot.”

                 CYBERNETIC: Robotic systems that contain active biological components, or a biological entity that makes use of
                 mechanical components. A cyborg is a hybrid of robotics and biology.

                 D

                 DARPA: The U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Funds major programs in robotics to build everything
                 from spy hummingbird drones to Terminator-like humanoids. Unofficially known as the Pentagon’s mad-science wing.
                 DEGREES OF FREEDOM (DOF): Anything independently movable on a robot counts as a degree of freedom, so one
                 actuator is typically worth one degree of freedom. Adding more degrees of freedom to a robot can make it potentially
                 more useful yet terribly difficult to control.
                 DELTA ROBOT: See “Parallel Robot.”
                 DRONE: A general term for an autonomous vehicle, most commonly applied to unmanned aerial vehicles. See “UAV.”

                 E

                 ENCODER: Converts the angular position of the shaft of a motor to a digital code that a computer can understand.
                 Used by robots to tell how much their wheels have turned, helping them track the distance that they’ve traveled.
                 END-EFFECTOR: The gripper or tool at the end of a robot arm designed to interact with the environment. Examples
                 include a pinch-type gripper, a multi-finger device similar to a human hand, and a welding head.
                 EMERGENCY STOP: Also known as “e-stop.” Big red button that you push to shut down a robot when something goes
                 wrong. Every robot needs one. You never want to have to push it.
                 EXOSKELETON: Powered exoskeletons are robotic suits worn by humans that exert direct control over our limbs. They
                 can be used to augment your existing strength, or to restore function to disabled limbs.

                 F

                 FEEDBACK: A method used for improving control of machines. It involves measuring a certain parameter (the speed
                 of a mobile robot, for example), comparing it to a desired value, and based on the discrepancy, making a correction
                 (accelerating or decelerating the robot). This process repeats continually and is known as feedback loop. See also
                 “Control” and “Nyquist Plot.”
                 FORCE FEEDBACK: See “Haptics.”








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                                                                                                                  Glossary]]></page><page Index="178"><![CDATA[G

              GPS: Global positioning system. Uses signals sent from a constellation of satellites to pinpoint the coordinates of a
              receiver anywhere on Earth. Robots use GPS for absolute positioning, but it’s not generally accurate enough to give a
              position better than a few meters, and it doesn’t work indoors.
              GYRO: Short for gyroscope. Uses a rotating or vibrating mechanism that detects when orientation changes. Mobile
              and aerial robots use gyros for detecting and maintaining their position in space.
              H

              HAPTICS: The study of people’s sense of touch and how to use it to create better control systems. Haptic devices apply
              forces and vibrations to a user’s body to help convey what the robot is doing. If a remote-controlled manipulator hits
              an object, for example, the operator will feel resistance on the joystick (what’s known as “force feedback”). Conversely,
              a device like a haptic glove can measure forces exerted by the operator and translate those measurements to a robot
              hand.
              HARMONIC DRIVE: A special type of gearbox that offers virtually no backlash, a compact and lightweight form factor,
              good resolution, and high torque. For a price. See also “Backlash.”
              HOLONOMIC: Usually used in reference to mobile robots, holonomic means that the robot can move (translate) in any
              direction without having to turn first.
              HUMANOID: A robot with a subset of features designed to be similar to humans. Distinguished from androids in that a
              humanoid robot is not intended to appear to be human, but simply to mimic the basic structure of a human. Humanoid
              robots usually include two arms, a head, and a torso. See also “Android.”
              HRI: Subfield of robotics that focuses on every aspect of human-robot interaction. See also “Roboethics.”
              HYDRAULIC:  A  hydraulic  actuator  is  powered  by  pressurized  fluid,  with  the  high  pressure  produced  by  a  pump.
              Hydraulic actuators are generally strong but slow. And leaky.

              I

              ICRA: The IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, one of the two largest robotics conferences the
              world has ever seen. Organized by the IEEE Robotics & Automation Society and held annually in a different city around
              the world. Pronounced “e-cra” for no apparent reason. See also “IROS.”
              IMU: Inertial measurement unit. A sensor system that typically combines accelerometers, gyroscopes, and electronic
              compasses. It measures orientation, velocity, and inertial forces. Used as navigation systems in UAVs or as orientation
              sensors in mobile robots and humanoids.
              INVERSE KINEMATICS: A set of equations that describe how the joints of a robot should move to position the end-
              effector at a desired location in space. See also “Singularity” and “XYZ Coordinates.”
              IROS: IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, the other of the two largest robotics conferences
              the world has ever seen. Organized by the IEEE Robotics & Automation Society and the Robotics Society of Japan. Held
              annually, with location alternating between a Japanese and a non-Japanese city. See also “ICRA.”
              J

              JAMMING: An actuation technique that involves applying vacuum to a pouch filled with a granular material; when the
              particles get packed together, they “jam,” or lock into one another. Researchers have used jamming to demonstrate a
              soft robot gripper that could hold objects by conforming to their shape.








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              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="179"><![CDATA[K

                 KINECT: A piece of sensor hardware from Microsoft made up of a color camera, an infrared depth sensor, a microphone
                 array, and software that can combine all these data to make 3D maps and track motion and gestures. Originally
                 developed for gaming, its high performance and low cost have led to rapid adoption by roboticists.
                 KINEMATICS: A series of equations that describe how objects move. Can be applied to just about anything, including
                 robotics. It doesn’t take into account forces causing the objects to move, because then it’s called dynamics.
                 L

                 LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION:  A tool that transforms mathematical expressions based in the time domain into
                 expressions based in an abstract, esoteric domain with no direct relation to reality where—believe it or not—designing
                 a control system is easier.
                 LIDAR: Light detection and ranging. A LIDAR system (or laser range finder) sends out beams of light and measures
                 the time that the beam takes to bounce off of an object and return to the sensor. This gives the distance from the
                 sensor to the object. By sending out lots of beams very fast, some LIDARs can build highly accurate 3D maps of their
                 surroundings. A LIDAR is more expensive than a Kinect sensor, but it’s more accurate and can “see” much farther.
                 M


                 MANIPULATOR: A jointed arm equipped with an end-effector designed to perform tasks. See also “End-effector.”
                 MATLAB: A mathematical software package used for numerical computing and simulation of dynamic systems. Helps
                 transform ideas into real things; many robots wouldn’t exist if it weren’t for it.
                 MAV: Micro aerial vehicle. A MAV is a type of UAV that’s smaller than normal, whatever normal happens to be.
                 Generally, it’s probably safe to say that a MAV is a UAV that’s man-portable or smaller.
                 MCKIBBEN MUSCLE: A pneumatic artificial muscle that contracts when air fills a bladder and extends when air is
                 released. Named after Joseph L. McKibben, a physician who invented the device in the 1950s. In the 1980s, Japanese
                 engineers redesigned the McKibben muscle and came up with a new name for it: the Rubbertuator. It’s still known as
                 McKibben.
                 MECHATRONICS:  A  field that combines mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and  computer  science to
                 design robots and other intelligent machines.
                 MOTION PLANNING: A technique that divides a desired movement into smaller, discrete motions. For a mobile robot,
                 a motion planning algorithm determines how to navigate a room from a starting to a finishing point. For a manipulator,
                 a motion planning algorithm determines how to move the joints to position the end-effector at a desired point.
                 N

                 NYQUIST PLOT: Control engineers use the Nyquist plot to determine whether the systems they are designing work (in
                 particular, whether they’re stable and won’t spiral out of control). The plot has an axis with imaginary numbers, but its
                 usefulness is very real indeed. See also “Control.”

                 O

                 OCU: Operator control unit. It can be a highly portable handheld device, a somewhat portable laptop-based controller,
                 or a completely non-portable refrigerator-sized system.

                 P

                 PARALLEL ROBOT: An industrial robot with three to four arms that converge on an end-effector. The robot typically
                 hangs above a working area and positions the end-effector along a plane parallel to the surface. It achieves high
                 speeds and is used for handling and packaging everything from metal widgets to chicken fillet.

                                                                                                                       177
                                                                                                                  Glossary]]></page><page Index="180"><![CDATA[PENDANT: Device used to program an industrial robot. You push buttons to move the robot and set desired positions,
              areas that should be avoided, and actions such as opening or closing the gripper. Pendants may look like game
              controllers but using them definitely feels more like work than fun.
              PLANT: Not the green stuff. In robotic parlance, it refers to a machine or process that you want to control.
              PLC: Programmable logic controller. Rugged control systems generally used for industrial automation.
              PNEUMATIC: A pneumatic actuator is powered by compressed air or other gases. See also “McKibben Muscle.”

              PID: Proportional integral derivative controller. The PID is the workhorse of control systems, used in everything from
              simple research robots to complex industrial machinery. If you program a robot to drive at 1 m/s, for example, the
              PID will try to maintain that speed by countering any disturbances with three strategies: The proportional component
              (P) makes corrections based on the error between the desired speed and the actual speed; the integral component
              (I) makes corrections based on the accumulation of past errors; and the derivative component (D) makes corrections
              based on how fast the error is changing. Tweak the P, I, and D parameters and you can almost always get a good
              controller. See also “Control” and “Feedback.”
              Q


              QUADROTOR: Also called “quad” or “quadcopter,” a flying robot that uses four horizontal rotors for lift and control.
              Simple, cheap, and robust, quadrotors come in a variety of sizes, and more powerful variations (using six, eight, or
              more rotors) are also used.

              R

              RADAR: A sensor that determines the distance of an object by emitting radio waves and measuring the time that the
              waves take to bounce off of the object and return. Autonomous vehicles and drones use radar to locate objects in their
              surroundings and avoid crashing on them.
              ROBOCUP: An international robotic soccer competition where researchers gather to play with their cool robots and,
              as a result, advance the state-of-the-art in robotics and artificial intelligence.
              ROBOETHICS:  Research field that explores the ethical implications of robotics and attempts to prevent the
              Robopocalypse. Focuses not only on how robots should act but also on how humans who design robots should act. See
              also “Robopocalypse” and “Three Laws of Robotics.”

              ROBOT: A machine that senses its environment, computes a decision based on a stored program, and performs an
              action. That description, however, can also describe an automatic door, which most certainly is not a robot. A more
              practical definition is, if you think something is a robot, you can almost always call it a robot.

              ROBOPOCALYPSE: The coming robot apocalypse. Results from a robot uprising that ends the world as we know it.
              Also, a novel about a robot uprising that ends the world as we know it. And a future Spielberg movie about a robot
              uprising that ends the world as we know it. See also “Three Laws of Robotics” and “Roboethics.”

              ROS: Robot Operating System. An open-source software platform used to give robots a variety of capabilities, including
              vision, navigation, and manipulation. Popular among researchers, ROS provides operating system-like functionality
              and is flexible and robust. A doctorate degree in robotics is not required to use ROS, but it helps.

              S

              SCARA: Selective compliant assembly robot arm. A robot arm with 4 degrees of freedom, typically used in industrial
              automation.
              SEMANTICS: The relationships between things. Robots use what’s called “semantic mapping” to relate objects to each
              other; for example, the knowledge that cheese is food, and that Twinkies are also food, and that cheese and Twinkies
              go really well together would be a simple (but rather unpleasant tasting) semantic map.



              178
              Touchpad Robotics - XI]]></page><page Index="181"><![CDATA[SENSOR: A device that measures something on a robot’s own body or the world around it. See also “GPS,” “LIDAR,”
                 “Radar”.
                 SERIAL ROBOT: A robot that consists of a series of links connected to each other with joints that are powered by
                 motors. Popular in industrial automation as pick-and-place robots. See also “Manipulator” and “SCARA.”
                 SERIES ELASTIC ACTUATOR: An actuator that, in addition to a motor and gearbox, uses a spring to make the device
                 less rigid. By measuring the deflection of the spring, the actuator can determine the forces applied to it. This means
                 that a robot can control its movements by sensing forces rather than just going from one position to another, making
                 it potentially safer for interacting with humans.
                 SLAM: Simultaneous localization and mapping. SLAM is a technique that robots use to create a map of an unknown
                 environment that they find themselves in. The concept behind SLAM is that a robot needs a map to know where it
                 is, but to make a map, the robots need to know where it is. SLAM attempts to tackle both problems at the same
                 time by combining remote sensing (like LIDAR) and sensors on the robot itself that track motion and orientation (like
                 accelerometers or IMUs).

                 SWARM ROBOTICS: The study of the collective behavior of dozens or hundreds of robots, drawing parallels with ant
                 colonies and other swarms found in nature.
                 SERVO: An electric motor that has some mechanism for providing feedback about how much it has moved. Servos are
                 distinct from motors in that a servo is aware of its position as opposed to just on or off, and are used when accurate
                 position control is necessary.
                 SINGULARITY: A point in space where a robot manipulator may become uncontrollable. Alternately, a point in human
                 history when robots achieve greater-than-human superintelligence and take over the world.
                 SOCIAL ROBOTS: Robots that are not content in just serving their human masters but also want to befriend them.
                 SONAR: A type of sensor that uses ultrasound to detect objects and measure the distance to them. Cheaper than
                 radar and LIDAR, but not as good.
                 STOCHASTIC:  A fancy word for random, stochastic refers to a process whose outcome can’t be deterministically
                 predicted and requires statistical tools to studied and accounted for.
                 SUBSUMPTION ARCHITECTURE: A divide-to-conquer approach to robotics programming popularized in the 1980s.
                 Based on simple modules whose collective action generates more complex behavior.

                 T

                 TELEOPERATION: The act of operating a robot remotely, based on information from cameras and other sensors on the
                 robot. See also “Haptics.”
                 TELEPRESENCE: Similar to teleoperation, except the robot is intended (on some level) to act as a surrogate for the
                 human operating it. It’ll let you be at the office without actually going there, but it won’t do your work for you.
                 THREE LAWS OF ROBOTICS: Formulated by science fiction writer Isaac Asimov in 1942. They are: First Law: A robot may
                 not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. Second Law: A robot must obey
                 the orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law. Third Law: A robot
                 must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.
                 TORQUE: A measure of the amount of turning force on an object, in newton-meters. In robots, typically used to describe
                 the power of electric motors.
                 TURING TEST: A test of machine intelligence postulated by Alan Turing. In a generalized interpretation, if a human and
                 a machine are tested in some way such that a second human can’t tell the difference between them, the machine is
                 considered to have passed the Turing Test.





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                                                                                                                  Glossary]]></page><page Index="182"><![CDATA[U

              UAV: Unmanned aerial vehicle. The term UAV applies to systems with various degrees of autonomy, from remote
              controlled aircraft to drones that fly themselves from takeoff to landing.

              UCAV: Unmanned combat aerial vehicle. Like a UAV, except armed and dangerous.
              UNCANNY VALLEY: A concept in robotics suggesting that if the appearance of a humanoid robot approaches but not
              attains that of a human, that robot will elicit an uncomfortable reaction from people. In one word: creepy.

              V
              VICON: A company that manufactures motion tracking systems. Uses infrared cameras to very precisely track the
              motion of tagged objects in precalibrated environments; commonly used to control quadrotors indoors.

              W

              WORKSPACE: If a robot can reach a point in space, said point is within the robot’s workspace. If a robot can’t reach a
              point in space, you have to move the robot.
              X

              XYZ COORDINATES: The Cartesian coordinate system we know and love.

              Y

              YAW, PITCH, AND ROLL: Terms to describe motion along an aircraft main axes. A yaw motion moves the nose of
              the aircraft from side to side. A pitch motion moves the nose of the aircraft up or down. A roll motion keeps the nose
              straight while moving one wing up and the other down.
              Z

              ZMP: Zero moment point is a control method widely used with dynamic robots to help them maintain stability. It
              positions the robot such that the ground contact point (like the bottom of a humanoid robot’s foot) has zero horizontal
              motion.





































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