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    Hardware-in-the-Loop  Testing: The robot’s  control  software was tested  with  a  physical  arm in a test  lab,
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                         performing repeated movements to find bugs and calibrate the system.
                         Safety Testing: The robot  was subjected  to rigorous  safety  tests,  ensuring  its  emergency  stop  mechanisms
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                         worked flawlessly and its force limits were within safe parameters.
                      Specifications: The robot’s performance was measured according to stringent specifications:
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                         Accuracy: It was calibrated to achieve very high absolute accuracy so that its instruments would be at the
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                         correct location as commanded by the surgeon, despite mechanical imperfections.
                         Repeatability: It was designed for sub-millimetre repeatability, so that if a surgeon needed to perform the same
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                         movement multiple times, the robot would follow the exact same path consistently.
                         Resolution: The entire system, from sensors to motors, was engineered for high resolution, enabling the robot to
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                         make the minute adjustments required for delicate surgical procedures.
                  Conclusion

                  This case study of a surgical assistant robot brings to life all the theoretical concepts we have learned. It demonstrates
                  how a successful robotic system is a masterpiece of engineering, integrating robust hardware with intelligent software
                  and meticulous project management. It highlights the power of semi-autonomy, where the robot acts as an intelligent
                  tool, enhancing human capability rather than replacing it, ultimately leading to better healthcare outcomes for patients.

                                                            ROBOT DYNAMICS
                        Links = rigid parts of a robot.

                        Joints = connectors that allow relative motion.
                        Degrees of freedom (DOF) measure a robot’s versatility.
                        Planar mechanisms move in 2D, spatial mechanisms move in 3D.
                        Workspace = the area a robot can cover.
                        Payload = maximum load a robot can handle.

                        Aluminium = lightweight and strong; Steel = durable but heavy; MDF/Acrylic = low-cost prototyping.
                        Omni and mecanum wheels allow sideways or diagonal movement.
                        Chassis/base provides stability to the robot.
                        Mechanical design decides how useful and efficient a robot will be.

                     RESEARCH ACTIVITY                                                             21 st
                                                                                                  Century   #Experiential Learning
                                                                                                   Skills
                    These activities balance conceptual understanding (degrees of freedom),
                    hands-on simulation (mechanism design), and real-world application (materials & wheels).

                    1.  Mapping Degrees of Freedom with Your Own Body
                           Task: Observe your own arm and note down how many independent movements it can make (up/down, left/
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                           right, rotation, bend at elbow, wrist, etc.). Compare this with a robot arm described in the chapter (2R or RP
                           manipulator).
                           Output: Draw a labelled diagram showing the “degrees of freedom” of a human arm vs. a robotic arm,
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                           highlighting similarities and differences.
                           Learning Outcome: Understand the concept of degrees of freedom by linking theory to everyday human
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                           anatomy.

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                  Touchpad Robotics - XI

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